BUSINESS ENGLISH

Lecturer: Simona MITOCARU

simona.mitocaru@uaic.ro

LECTURE 1:
MANAGEMENT
Management;
Meetings; Internal business
communication agenda, minutes,
memorandum

MANAGEMENT
TO MANAGE
1. to control, to be in charge of a business or
organisation, a team of people, a project;

How many people do you manage?

2. to use time, money, etc., in a sensible way

We offer you a computer programme that helps you
manage data effectively.

MANAGEABLE (adj.)
possible to deal with or control

The debt has been reduced to a more manageable

level.

MANAGEMENT
MANAGER
A person who is in charge of running a business, a shop, a

department, a project.

MANAGERIAL (adj.)
Connected with the work of a manager

He was appointed for his managerial skills.

MANAGING DIRECTOR (MD U.K.)

The member of a companys Board of Directors who is responsible
for running the business on a daily basis.
DIRECTOR (COMPANY DIRECTOR)
One of a group of people who are chosen by shareholders to run a

company and decide its policies.

DIRECTOR GENERAL (pl. directors general)

The head of a large organisation, esp. a public organisation.

Expressions
to be
appointed as
To become

A finance
(a) director

A marketing

To be elected

A commercial

To be made

A production

director

A research
To act as
To serve as

a director

A sales
An acting

To step down
as
To resign as
To retire as

An assistant
director

A deputy

director

MANAGEMENT
1. the act of running and controlling a

business or similar organisation;

effective/good/ solid/strong management
bad/ poor management
day-to-day/general/overall/routine management
Management methods/practices/skills/styles/

techniques

2. the people who run and control the

business or a similar organisation;

The store is now under new management.
junior/senior/top management

MANAGEMENT
3. the act of running a particular part of a

companys activities; the people who do this.

In the conference room there is a meeting

between senior HR management and

employees representatives.

4. the skill of dealing with controlling things or

people.
poor management of people/ a crisis in the

company

MANAGEMENT BOARD
A group of senior executives that are

responsible for deciding on the way a

Management by
exception
A style of management in which the senior

managers give those below them as much

authority to control a project as possible and
only become involved if there is a problem or
an unusual situation (an exception).

Management by objectives (MBO)

A style of management in which aims and

goals are ret for the staff in order to direct

their work and measure how well they do it.

THE 4 MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

PLANNING
Defining goals for future performance;
Deciding on the tasks and resource use needed to attain them;

ORGANISING
Assigning tasks;
Grouping tasks into departments;
Allocating resources to departments;

LEADING
The use of influence to motivate the employees to achieve the organisational goals;
Creating a shared culture and values;
Communicating goals to employees;
Motivating employees;

CONTROLLING
Monitoring the employees activities;
Keeping the organisation on track towards its goals;
Making corrections as needed.

MANAGEMENT SKILLS
CONCEPTUAL SKILLS
Managers thinking, information, processing, planning.
Strategic thinking
Necessary especially for top managers (decision-making, resource allocation,
innovation)
HUMAN SKILLS
The ability to work with people
Relating to people, motivating, facilitating, coordinating.
Necessary for the management which work with employees directly (first-

line managers)

TECHNICAL SKILLS
Mastery of methods, techniques and equipment involved in specific
functions
Specialised knowledge
Analytical ability
Necessary especially for lower management levels

MASLOWS THEORY OF
NEEDS

Frederick HERZBERGs
MOTIVATIONAL & HYGIENE
FACTORS
MOTIVATORS

achievement HYGIENE/MAINTENANCE
FACTORS
recognition
- status
work
responsibility - security
- relationship with
advancement subordinates, peers and
personal growthsupervisors
- personal life
- salary
- work conditions

Douglas McGREGORs X / Y THEORY

THEORY X (AUTHORITARIAN
MANAGEMENT STYLE)

The average person

dislikes work and will

avoid it.
Most people must be
forced (CONTROLLED) to
work towards
organisational objectives.
The average person
prefers to be directed, to
avoid responsibility and
wants security above all
else.

THEORY Y (PARTICIPATIVE
MANAGEMENT STYLE)

Effort in work is as natural

as work and play.

People accept and even
seek responsibility.
People must be given
authority to achieve
organisational objectives.
(EMPOWERMENT)

LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT
TOP (LEVEL) MANAGERS / SENIOR MANAGERS /

EXECUTIVES
At the top one or two levels in an organisation
POSSIBLE TITLES: CEO (Chief Executive Officer), CFO (Chief Financial

Officer), COO (Chief Operations ), CIO (Chief Information Officer),

Chairperson of the Board, President, Vice-President.
They make decisions that affect the entire company.
They do not direct the day-t0-day activities of the company, they set
goals for the organisation and direct the company to achieve them.
They need managerial experience.
Some CEOs are hired from top management positions in other
companies (HEADHUNTING)
They may be promoted from within and trained by COACHING and
MENTORING.

LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT
MIDDLE (LEVEL) MANAGERS
POSSIBLE POSITIONS: General Manager, Plant
Manager, Regional Manager, Divisional Manager
They are responsible for carrying out the goals
set by top management.
They set goals for their departments.
They can motivate and assist first-line managers to
achieve business objectives.
They may also communicate upward, by offering
suggestions and feedback to top managers.
They may be promoted from first-line management or
may have been hired from other organisations.

LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT
FIRST (LEVEL)/LINE MANAGERS / SUPERVISORS
POSSIBLE POSITIONS: Office Manager, Shift
Supervisor, Department Manager, Foreperson,
Crew leader, Store Manager
They are responsible for the daily management of line
workers (the employees who actually produce the
product or offer the service).
They are the managers that most employees interact
with on a daily basis.
In the past they were promoted from line positions
(production or clerical jobs), now they need formal
education and training.

MEETINGS
Gatherings of three or more people sharing

common objectives where communication is the

primary means of achieving those objectives.
Play an essential role in an organisation
A tool - to get decisions made

to
to
to
to
to
to

spread information
gather information
generate ideas
review or evaluate
solve problems
negotiate

Types of MEETING
Information meetings
Decision-making meetings
Board meetings
Departmental meetings
Team meetings
Staff meetings
Weekly

meetings
AGMs (Annual General Meetings)
EGMs (Extraordinary General Meetings)

MEETINGS
An EFFECTIVE meeting has:
A clear purpose
A list of points to discuss
A result
A report of what took place at the meeting
It must also use a minimum amount of time.

WORD PARTNERSHIPS: MEETING

To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To

arrange
organise
schedule
call
run
chair
have
hold
attend
participate in
take part in
go to
be present at
postpone
cancel

A MEETING

KEY VOCABULARY: THE FORMAL

MEETING
AGENDA
A list of items to be discussed at a meeting.
MINUTES
An official record of the proceedings of a meeting.
CHAIR
the person who controls a meeting, also known as
CHAIRMAN/CHAIRWOMAN/CHAIRPERSON.
SECRETARY
The person responsible for the agenda and the minutes of a meeting.
PARTICIPANTS
The people who attend a meeting.
AOB (any other business)
An item on the agenda which gives participants an opportunity to raise
points that were not already included in the agenda.
VOTE
An expression of opinion/preferences about a question raised.

CHECKLIST for EVALUATING A

MEETING
An agenda is prepared and circulated prior to the

meeting.
Participants have the opportunity to contribute to the
agenda.
Advance notice of meeting time and venue is
provided to those invited.
Meeting facilities are comfortable and adequate for
the number of participants.
The meeting begins on time and has a scheduled
ending time.
The use of time is monitored throughout the meeting.

CHECKLIST for EVALUATING A

MEETING
Everyone has an opportunity to present his/her point of

view.
Participants listen carefully to each other.
There are periodic summaries as the meeting progresses.
No one tends to dominate the discussion.
Everyone has a voice in decisions made at the meeting.
The meeting typically ends with a summary of
accomplishments.
People will carry out any action agreed to during the
meeting.
Minutes of the meeting are provided to each participant
following the meeting.

THE ROLE OF THE CHAIR

The chair / chairperson is the leader of the meeting the

person who controls the direction that it takes. He or she is

responsible for:
Introducing the agenda
Introducing the speakers, if appropriate
Running the meeting
Ensuring that rules are followed
Encouraging everybody to take part
Preventing digressions
Timekeeping
Achieving objectives of the meeting
Summing up at the end
Setting the date of the next meeting if necessary

ESSENTIAL LANGUAGE OF
MEETINGS
INTRODUCING THE AGENDA

OPENING

Does everybody have a copy of the

agenda?
You will see that there are points on
the agenda.

STARTING THE MEETING

Good , everyone. I think we

should make a start.
THE MINUTES OF THE
Right, shall we begin?
PREVIOUS MEETING
OK, can we start now please?
Can we take the minutes as read?
We have received apologies from
Proposed?
Seconded?
[names of people who cannot
attend.]
FIRST POINT
INTRODUCING
Now, Id like to move on to the first

PARTICIPANTS

Id like to introduce our partners from

Peru and Chile.
ASKING

PURPOSE OF THE MEETING

point.
The first item on the agenda is

We are here to discuss

The purpose of this meeting is to
What we want to do today is

FOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Who would like to start?

Id like to ask Mr Wheeler to tell us
Can we hear from Human Resources on
that please?

ESSENTIAL LANGUAGE OF
MEETINGS
HANDING OVER TO ANOTHER

PERSON

Now, over to you James.

Mr Reid, would you like to take it
from here?

BRINGING OTHERS IN

James, how do you feel about what

Henrys said?
George, have you got any
comments on that?
Would you like to add anything,
Martha?

CONTROLLING THE SPEAKERS

Sorry Rob, Ill have to stop you

here.
Mike, can you let Paula finish?
We are moving away from the point
here.
Can you be brief?

TIMEKEEPING
Right, that leaves us with about

twenty minutes to discuss

We need to move on now if we
are going to get through
everything.

SUMMARIZING KEY POINTS

DURING THE MEETING

The main points we have looked

at are
So the issues weve looked at so
far are

ESSENTIAL LANGUAGE OF
MEETINGS
DISCUSSION
ASKING FOR OPINIONS

What do you think, Rob?

Could we hear what Rowan
has to say?
Whats your view on this?

GIVING OPINIONS

I feel
I think
It seems to me that
It is clear that
In my view,

AGREEING

I agree. / I agree with John /

with what John said.
Thats right.
Absolutely.

DISAGREEING
I dont agree.
Im sorry, I cant agree with that.
Im afraid I completely disagree with you.
That cant be right.

INTERRUPTING
Excuse me, can I just say a word?
Sorry to interrupt, but

HANDLING INTERRUPTIONS
Could you just let me finish?
Ill come to that later.
Yes, go ahead please.

INDICATING THAT YOU ARE

ACTIVELY LISTENING
Yes, I see.
Right.
Mm, I understand.

REFERRING TO OTHER SPEAKERS

As Patricia said,
Going back to what Connor was saying,

ESSENTIAL LANGUAGE OF
MEETINGS
ENDING
SUMMING UP
Now, to summarize whats
been said,
So, weve agreed to
The decisions made here
today are
SUMMARIZING FOLLOW-

UP ACTION

Paul will look into

Before the next meeting we
need to
Carol, can you follow up the
?
So, whos going to ?

CLOSING THE MEETING

Thats all for today.
Lets finish there.
Thank you for coming.

ARRANGING NEXT MEETING

The next meeting will be on

(date, time).
Ill be in touch about the date of
the next meeting.
What day would suit people for
the next meeting? Can you
check your diaries?

AGENDA
It should be circulated in advance to the participants, offering

them the opportunity to contribute to it.

It should communicate the purpose of the meeting and the goal of
each item
It should include necessary, practical information
The language should be clear and concise.
RECOMMENDED ELEMENTS:
Items to be handled, listed in proper sequence
Meeting adjournment time
Time of scheduled breaks, if necessary

The leader of the meeting should have

an approximate time allocation for each item
Notes on points to be clarified
Equipment that may be required

AGENDA - structure
1. title of the meeting / reason for the meeting
2. date, time, location
3. a list of those required to attend, usually in an alphabetical order

(with officers first)

4. apologies for absence (may be sent in advance / presented at the
meeting)
5. approval of the minutes of the last meeting
6. matters arising (from the minutes / last meeting)
7. correspondence received
8. reports from the officers
9. specific topics for discussion
10. AOB (any other business)
11. Next meeting
adjournment

AGENDA

MINUTES
Minutes should be written as soon as possible

after the meeting, and circulated to the

participants and anyone else affected by the
content(usually within 24 hours).
The person assigned to take the minutes
notes down all the important points made at
the meeting and later writes up a clear
summary of what was said and decided.

MINUTES
LAYOUT (standard format)
a. subject and date of the meeting
b. list of participants (apologies, if necessary)
c. summary of the chairs introduction
d. summary of opinions and suggestions
exchanged
e. action points decided upon, people assigned
to each action and deadlines given
f. date and time of the next meeting

MINUTES
LANGUAGE STYLE
Quite formal
Short, clear, concise, readable sentences
Summarize only the most important points
Long speeches must be summarized and for the
main ideas use bullet points
Minutes shouldnt be longer than one page, no
matter how long the meeting was.

MINUTES - Useful
phrases
GIVING THE LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Use PRESENT: followed by the list.
SUMMARISING THE CHAIRS INTRODUCTION
Mr/Ms X opened the meeting with the following points: (+ bullet points)
SUMMARISING A DISCUSSION
Mr X was the first to speak / react/ contribute and put forward the
following ideas:
Mr Y agreed / expressed approval and added:
Ms Z disagreed and argued:
Mr X expressed disapproval / concern and insisted
Ms Z accepted that but defended her position on . However, she
conceded that
Mr X agreed / offered / promised / refused / wanted (+ to infinitive)
Mr Y denied / admitted / suggested / recommended (followed by the
gerund)
Ms Z advised / asked / instructed / reminded (+ object + to + infinitive)
Everyone agreed on

MINUTES - Useful
phrases
ACTION POINTS AND DEADLINES
The following action points were decided upon:

Mr X will look into / research / draw up a list of /

calculate / study by the end of next week.
Mr Y will speak to before the 15th.
Ms Z will come to the next meeting with
Mr X will get back to / send a report to the
Finance Committee within the next few days.

MEMORANDUM (MEMO)
It originally meant a reminder or confirmation.
A very common form of business

communication used for a variety of

messages exchanged between people working
in the same organisation (in-company
communication).
It usually focuses on only one specific topic:
CONVEYING INFORMATION
REQUESTING INFORMATION
GIVING INSTRUCTIONS
RECOMMENDING OPTIONS

MEMORANDUM (MEMO)
LAYOUT
HEADER:
name of the person / people the memo is addressed
to;
name of the person / people sending the memo;
date
information about the content of the memo

Introduction to the subject matter

Main points
Conclusion, often recommending the action to

be taken
Closing (the initials of the person sending the

MEMORANDUM (MEMO)
LANGUAGE STYLES
The opening is more direct and less formal than
in a letter or email, with no greeting such as
Dear .
It starts with the introduction to the main
points.
The closing is generally just the initials of the
sender.
Memos are less formal than business letters
the tone is neutral and the language simple.
Short, clear sentences (not bossy though)
Memos often conclude with a request for action.

MEMO Useful phrases

GIVING INFORMATION
You will be happy to hear
I am / we are delighted to inform you
I am delighted to be able to announce
I would like to remind you that
I have been recently been informed
REQUESTING INFORMATION
I would like to have
Could you provide me with ?
If you have any questions, please

MEMO Useful phrases

GIVING INSTRUCTIONS
Please read
We / I kindly request
Make sure that
is permitted only
RECOMMENDING OPTIONS
It is recommended that
It is in the best interests of
Having considered all the alternatives, I / we
suggest

WORKING ACROSS
CULTURES
LECTURE 2: Metaphors of culture; The Hofstede
Model; The Trompenaars Model; The Hall Model; The
Mole Model

What is CULTURE?
Gary Wederspahn: Culture is the shared

set of
assumptions, values, and
beliefs of a group of
people by which they
organize their common
life.
Geert Hofstede:

Culture is the
collective
programming of the
mind which distinguishes
the members of
one group from another.

What is culture for you?

Towns (houses, traffic)
Business (HIERARCHY:

obedience/independence; STYLE:
formal/informal; COMMUNICATION:
written/oral)
Physical (BODY LANGUAGE: gestures, facial
expression; APPEARANCE: dress, features)
Politics (GOVERNMENT: centralisation,
bureaucracy; DEMOCRACY)

What is culture for you?

Routines (meal times, work times/schedules)
Food and drink (acceptable/non-acceptable;

times; PLACE: restaurant/home; importance)

Language (SPOKEN: volume, speed,
formality, jargon, politeness, dialect;
WRITTEN: length, formality)
Social life (class; gender; tradition;
hospitality; FAMILY LIFE: old people, children;
greetings; emotion)

DISCUSSION TOPIC

An individual is a
member of many
different cultures.

Metaphors of Culture
ICEBERG

ONION

Metaphors of Culture
If culture is like an iceberg, what is
ABOVE THE WATER
AT THE WATER LINE
BELOW THE WATER?
If culture is like an onion, what are the

different layers?

The CULTURE ICEBERG

The CULTURE ONION

The CULTURE ONION

Other layers:
GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS

(within a country)
SOCIAL CLASS
DEPARTMENTS within a
company
WORK TEAMS

ONION LAYERS (inside outside)

Self
Family
Gender/age
Social class/ethnic

group
Region/country
Universal human
nature

Self
Team/department
Profession
Organisation
National culture
International business

culture

COMPANY DIMENSIONS
organisational / corporate
culture
DIMENSIONS

EXTREME POINTS

1. Image of leader

a. Hierarchical / flat

2. Company structure

b. Formal / informal

3. Planning
perspective

c. normative, based on rules /

pragmatic, depending on the situation

4. Timing of activities

d. long-term / short-term

5. Basis for status in

company

e. Who you are / what you do

6. Decision-making
process

f. Strong individual / leader of group

7. Relationship with
colleagues

g. Impersonal / personal

8. Dress codes

h. Sequential monochronic (one

activity at a time) / synchronic
polychromic (several activities at the
same time)

The HOFSTEDE MODEL

1. THE POWER DISTANCE INDEX

(PDI)
2. UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
INDEX (UAI)
3. INDIVIDUALISM/
COLLECTIVISM (IDV)
4. MASCULINITY / FEMININITY
(MAS)
----------

1. POWER DISTANCE
PDI measures how much a culture has

respect for authority.

In a HIGH POWER DISTANCE culture:
it

is acceptable for a supervisor to display

authority;
superiors
rarely give their subordinates
important work;
If something goes wrong, the subordinates are
usually blamed for not doing their proper
job/role;
managers rarely interact or socialize with
workers;

1. POWER DISTANCE
In a LOW POWER DISTANCE culture:
Supervisors

are expected to treat employees

respectfully;
Subordinates may do important work, thus
having the opportunity to get promoted
quickly;
If
something
goes
wrong,
the
superior/authority figure is usually blamed for
having unrealistic expectations or being to
strict;
Managers socialize and interact with workers
more often.

2. UNCERTAINTY
AVOIDANCE
UAI measures a cultures preference for strict

laws and regulations over ambiguity and risk.

Protestant

and Chinese cultures rank relatively low;

Catholic, Buddhist and Arabic countries tend to score
high in uncertainty avoidance.
In LOW UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE cultures:
Risk

is valued in business;
Citizens are proud of their nation;
Foreigners or minorities are encouraged to
assimilate.

2. UNCERTAINTY
AVOIDANCE
In HIGH UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE cultures:
Risk

is avoided in business;
Citizens are often critical of their nation;
People tend to be more superstitious;
Xenophobia is common and foreigners and
minorities tend to be ostracized.

3. INDIVIDUALISM/COLLECTIVISM
INDIVIDUALISM
promotes individual goals, initiative and
achievement.
results in a strong sense of competition.
Each person is encouraged to stand out, be
unique and express himself/herself.
Individual rights are seen as the most
important. Rules ensure independence, choices
and freedom of speech.
People are encouraged to do things on their
own, to rely on themselves.

3. INDIVIDUALISM/COLLECTIVISM
COLLECTIVISM
emphasizes family and work group goals.
Each person is encouraged to conform to
society, to do what is best for the group and to
not openly express opinions or beliefs that go
against it.
Group, family or rights for the common good
are seen as more important than the rights of
individuals.
Rules promote stability, order and obedience.
Working with others and cooperating is the
norm. Everyone is expected to rely on others for

MASCULINITY /
FEMININITY
MAS describes the degree to which masculine values

(i.e., competitiveness and the acquisition of wealth)

are valued over feminine values (i.e., relationship
building and quality of life).
In MASCULINE CULTURES:
priorities are achievement, wealth, expansion and war;
womens liberation = women begin to participate in

male-dominated areas;
a low number of women represented in politics and
business;
professionals often LIVE TO WORK (long work hours
and little use of holiday time )

MASCULINITY /
FEMININITY
In FEMININE CULTURES:
priorities are relationships, nurturance,
environmental protection and quality of life;
a high number of women in politics;
arts and healing are more important than
manufacturing and business;
professionals WORK TO LIVE (short work hours
and high use of holiday time)

LONG-TERM/ SHORT-TERM
ORIENTATION
LTO measures the degree to which the

members of a national culture will postpone

gratification to achieve long-term goals.

APPENDIX
Region
county

INDIVIDUALISM
COLLECTIVISM

POWER
DISTAN
CE

UNCERTAI MASCULINITY
NTY
FEMININITY
AVOIDANC
E

NORTH
AMERI
CA
(USA)

individualism

low

medium

masculine

JAPAN

collectivism and high

individualism

high

masculine

CHINA

collectivism

low

low

masculine/feminin
e

AFRICA collectivism

high

high

feminine

LATIN
AMERI
CA

high

high

masculine

collectivism

SOURCE: Nath, Raghu and Kunal K. Sadhu. Comparative Analysis.

Conclusions, and Future Directions. in Comparative Management A
Regional View. Raghu Hath (ed.). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing
Company, 1988, p. 273.
EUROP
E

INDIVIDUALISM
COLLECTIVISM

POWER
DISTAN
CE

UNCERTAI MASCULINITY
NTY
FEMININITY
AVOIDANC
E

AngloSaxon

individualism

low
medium

low
medium

masculine

Germa
nic

Medium
individualism

low

medium/hi
gh

medium/high
masculine

Balkani collectivism
c

high

high

medium
masculine

Nordic

medium/high
individualism

low

low/mediu
m

feminine

Latin
Europe

medium/high
individualism

high

high

medium
masculine

East
Slavic

collectivism

low

medium

masculine

APPLICATION
1. EMPLOYEE RELATIONSHIPS
2. MONOCHRONIC / POLYCHRONIC CULTURE
3. GENDER
4. TITLES
5. BODY LANGUAGE
6. PUNCTUALITY
7. HIERARCHY
8. LEADERSHIP
9. HUMOUR
10. TIME
11. DIRECTNESS/INDIRECTNESS OF COMMUNICATION

If a meeting is supposed to

start at 9 oclock, then I think

it should start at 9 oclock.

Managers and unions? Its

them and us. Youll never get

the two sides to really work
together.

Everyone calls each other by

their first names and I can

walk into the office of anyone
in the company.

If I told a joke at the start of

a presentation, people would

think I was not serious about
my job.

I dont like people I dont

know to stand too close to

me.

Just because someone has a

doctorate, they dont have to

insist that everyone calls
them Doctor.

I think its right for the boss

to have another pay rise.

After all, he takes the risks
and
makes
the
difficult
decisions.

I like to say exactly what I

think and I expect other

people to do the same.

I tried to help one of the

girls in the office into her

coat and she got really
angry!

I tried to call this guy in

Norway at 3 oclock on Friday

afternoon and everyone in
the office had gone home!

I like to do one thing at a

time. I cant stand people

who start taking phone calls
in the middle of meetings.

DICTIONARY (www.mw.com)
XENOPHOBIA: fear and hatred of

strangers or
strange or

of anything that is
foreign.

DICTIONARY (www.mw.com)
OSTRACIZE: to exclude from a

group by

common consent.

DICTIONARY (www.mw.com)
NURTURANCE: affectionate care and

attention.

Trompenaars and HampdenTurners Dimensions of Culture

UNIVERSALISM vs. PARTICULARISM
COMMUNITARIANISM vs. INDIVIDUALISM
NEUTRALITY vs. AFFECTIVITY
DIFFUSE vs. SPECIFIC CULTURES
ACHIEVEMENT vs. ASCRIPTION
HUMAN TIME RELATIONSHIP

(SEQUENTIAL vs. SYNCHRONIC TIME)

HUMAN NATURE RELATIONSHIP (INNER
DIRECTED vs. OUTER-DIRECTED)

Halls Model
HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURE vs. LOW-

CONTEXT CULTURE
MONOCHRONIC vs. POLYCHRONIC
CULTURE

HIGH-CONTEXT VS. LOW-CONTEXT

CULTURES
Tend to prefer indirect

verbal interaction
are generally more
proficient in reading nonverbal cues
Rely more on context and
feeling
Avoid saying NO
Communicate in ambiguous
messages, understand
visual messages readily.
E.G. Japan, China, Muslim
countries

Tend to prefer direct

verbal interaction;
Value individualism;
Rely on logic;
Says NO directly;
Communicate in
contexted messages,
provide details, give
authority to written
information.
E.G. North America,
Western Europe (German,
Scandinavian, English)

MONOCHRONIC VS. POLYCHRONIC

Interpersonal relations

Schedule is

are subordinated to
subordinated to
schedule;
interpersonal relations;
Schedule co-ordinates
Interpersonal relations
activity; appointment
co-ordinate activity;
time is rigid;
appointment time is
Breaks and personal time
flexible;
are sacred;
Time is flexible and
Time is inflexible and
fluid;
intangible;
Work time is not clearly
Work time is separated
separable from personal
from personal time.
time.

MARKETING
Market research
Key vocabulary for Marketing
The Marketing Mix

MARKET(ING)
RESEARCH
Marketing managers need to collect specific

information about markets, and may

commission market research companies to
carry out these studies.
Here are some terms that may appear when
dealing with market(ing) research.

MARKET RESEARCH: KEY TERMS

A sample is a small part of the population, which is taken

to represent the whole.

A questionnaire is a set of questions used in a survey to
find out about peoples opinions, behaviour and
practices. Market research is often carried out through a
focus group. A focus group is a number of people who
take part in a carefully managed discussion, in order to
provide data about attitudes and responses to products
and services. Original data like this is called primary data,
while information collected from periodicals, government
publications, online databases and other sources is
known as secondary data. Therefore, the main methods
of research are field/ primary research and desk/desktop /
secondary research, or quantitative and qualitative
research. The results of the market research are known
as findings, presented at the end of the research task.

MARKET RESEARCH: KEY TERMS

A sample is a small part of the population, which is taken

to represent the whole.

A questionnaire is a set of questions used in a survey to
find out about peoples opinions, behaviour and practices.
Market research is often carried out through a focus
group. A focus group is a number of people who take part
in a carefully managed discussion, in order to provide data
about attitudes and responses to products and services.
Original data like this is called primary data, while
information collected from periodicals, government
publications, online databases and other sources is known
as secondary data. Therefore, the main methods of
research are field/ primary research and desk/desktop /
secondary research, or quantitative and qualitative
research. The results of the market research are known as
findings, presented at the end of the research task.

MARKET RESEARCH:
THE PROCESS
STEPS:
1. Identify the problem or the opportunity and the
research objectives
2. Decide on the research methods (field, secondary,
qualitative, quantitative, focus group, survey, etc.)
3. Decide on the research instrument (questionnaire)
4. Choose contact methods (mail, telephone, Internet,
personal interview)
5. Collect data
6. Analyse /mine data
7. Present findings

MARKET RESEARCH: Designing a

questionnaire
It is important to choose questions carefully,

to consider the form, the wording and the

sequence.
Closed questions are designed to limit the
number of types of answers that are given.
Open questions allow the respondent to
give opinions and reasons more freely.

EXAMPLES
Questions designed to obtain a single

answer:
Do you buy your own magazines?
YES
NO
Who do you live with?

NOBODY
FRIENDS
PARENTS
RELATIVES
OTHER (please specify)

EXAMPLES
A scaled question
Offers statements with which the respondent can show
the amount of agreement or disagreement, or that
rates the importance of something, e.g. from poor to
excellent.
Teenage magazines are expensive. Select the
response that is closest to your opinion:
STRONGLY AGREE
AGREE
NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE
DISAGREE
STRONGLY DISAGREE

EXAMPLES
A prioritising question
Asks the respondents to rank certain points according to
their personal preferences.
Place the following in order of importance to you.
PHOTOS OF MUSIC STARS
LETTERS PAGE
COSMETICS ADVICE
TRUE STORIES
PROBLEM PAGE
MAIN FEATURE
ADVERTISEMENTS

EXAMPLES
An open question

asks the respondent to write freely on the

subject, allowing for any opinions to be given
that were not picked up earlier:
What is your opinion of this magazine?
Complete this sentence: What I like about

this magazine is

KEY TERMS IN
MARKETING
ADVERTISING: any paid form of non-personal presentation and

promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor.

MARKETING: the process of planning and executing the conception,
pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to
create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational goals.
PROMOTION: the process of communicating with, and influencing,
customers to buy a companys products. It involves creating a clear
identity and image for a product and bringing the products benefits
to the customers notice.
PUBLICITY: involves attracting the publics attention but not
necessarily selling anything specific. It is free of charge.
PUBLIC RELATIONS: the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to
establish and maintain mutual understanding between an
organization and its public. Its main function is to build up a good
image and reputation for the organization.

KEY TERMS IN
MARKETING
BRAND:

a company or product name, term, sign,

symbol, design or combination of these that
identifies the offerings of one company and
differentiates them from those of competitors.
DIFFERENTIATION: the act of designing a set of
meaningful differences to distinguish a companys
offering something in return.
END USERS:
final customers who buy a product.
PROSPECT: a party from whom a marketer is seeking
a response whether it is attention, a
purchase, a
vote, etc.

KEY TERMS IN
MARKETING
NEED: a basic human requirement, i.e. food,

air, water, clothing, shelter, as well as

recreation, education and entertainment.
WANT: a desire that occurs when a need is
directed to specific objects that might satisfy
that need: e.g., a hamburger is a want that
might satisfy the need for food.
DEMANDS arise when people both want a
specific product and are willing and able to
pay for it.

CONCEPTS
MARKETING CONCEPT: the belief that a

company can achieve its goals primarily by

being more effective than its competitors
at creating, delivering, and communicating
value to its target markets. It resides on
four pillars:
1.
2.
3.

4.

Identifying a target market

Focusing on customer needs
Coordinating all marketing functions from the
customers point of view
Achieving profitability.

MORE CONCEPTS
PRODUCTION CONCEPT: the belief that customers prefer

products that are widely available and inexpensive.

PRODUCT CONCEPT: the belief that consumers favour
products that offer the most quality, performance, or
innovative features.
SELLING CONCEPT: the belief that companies must sell
and promote their offerings aggressively because
consumers will not buy enough of the offerings on their own.
SOCIETAL MARKETING CONCEPT: The belief that a
companys task is to identify the needs, wants, and interests
of target markets and to deliver the desired satisfactions
better than competitors do but in a way that preserves or
enhances consumers and societys well-being.

CUSTOMER NEEDS AND PRODUCTS

STATED NEEDS: what customers say

they want, e.g., I need sealant for my

window panes for the winter.
REAL NEEDS: what customers actually

require, e.g., a house that is better

insulated and therefore warmer during the
winter.

GOODS: physical offerings such as food,

UNSTATED NEEDS: requirements that

customers dont happen to mention, e.g.,

an easy solution to insulating the house.

DELIGHT NEEDS: the desire for luxuries,

as compared to real needs.

SECRET NEEDS: needs that customers

feel reluctant to admit, e.g., some people

may have a strong need for social status
but feel uncomfortable about admitting
that status is important to them.

commodities, clothing, housing, appliances,

etc.
SERVICES: i.e., airline travel, hotels,
maintenance and repair, and professionals
(accountants, lawyers, doctors)
EXPERIENCES: e.g., a visit to a theme park
or dinner at the most popular restaurant
EVENTS: e.g., the Olympics, trade shows,
sports and artistic performances
PEOPLE: i.e. artists, musicians, rock bands,
celebrity CEOs, and other high-profile
individuals
PLACES: cities, states, regions, nations that
attract tourists, businesses, and new
residents
INFORMATION: produced, packaged, and
distributed by schools, publishers, Web-site
creators, and other marketers
IDEAS: concepts such as Donate blood or
Stop household violence that reflect a
deeply held value or social need

MARKETING MIX
PRODUCT decisions include quality, design,

features, brand name, etc.

PRICE decisions include price point, list price,
discounts, payment period
PLACE decisions include channels of
distribution, geographic coverage
PROMOTION decisions include advertising,
direct marketing, public relations

THE 7 Ps
PEOPLE (PARTICIPANTS)
PROCESSES
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

PRODUCT

PHYSICAL DISTINCTIONS:
FORM: size, shape, structure
FEATURES: i.e. a word processing softwares new text-editing
tool
PERFORMANCE QUALITY: the level at which the products
primary characteristics function
DURABILITY: the products expected operating life under
natural or stressful conditions
RELIABILITY: the probability that the product will not
malfunction or fail
REPAIRABILITY: the ease with which the product can be
fixed if it malfunctions
STYLE: the products look and feel
DESIGN: the way all the above qualities work together (it is
easy to use, looks nice, and lasts a long time)

 SERVICE DISTINCTIONS:
PRODUCT

ORDERING EASE: how easy it is for customers

to buy the product

DELIVERY: how quickly and accurately the
product is delivered
INSTALLATION: how well the work is done to
make the product useable in its intended location
CUSTOMER TRAINING: whether the company
offers to train customers in using the product
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR: how well the
company helps customers keep the product in
good working order

A good brand creates

a strong brand image the
BRAND
IMAGE
consumer perception of what the product or company

stands for.
Brands can evoke:
ATTRIBUTES: The car is durable.
BENEFITS: With such a durable car, I wont have
to buy
another for years.
VALUES:
This company certainly
emphasizes high
performance.
CULTURE: I like these cars because they reflect
an
organized, efficient, high-quality culture.
PERSONALITY:
This car really shows off my
stylish side.
USER:
That looks like the kind of car that a
senior
executive would buy.

Product Life Cycle

cf. Kotler, 2001

Characteristics

Marketing
Objectives

Market
Strategies

Product
Introduct
ion

Low sales, high

cost per customer,
no profits, few
competitors

Create product
awareness and
trial

Offer a basic
product
Use heavy
promotions to
create trial

Product
Growth

Rising sales and

profits, more and
more competitors

Maximize market
share

Offer product
extensions
Reduce
promotion due
to heavy
demand

Product
Maturity

Peaking sales and

profits, stable or
declining number
of competitors

Maximize profit
while defending
market share

Diversify brands
Intensify
promotion to
encourage
switching to new
brands

Product
Decline

Declining sales,
profits, and

Reduce
expenditure and

Withdraw weak
products

THE BOSTON MATRIX

PRODUCTS
CONSUMER
PRODUCTS/
GOODS

SHOPPING
GOODS/
CONSUMER
DURABLES

CONVENIE
NCE
GOODS
HOUSEH
OLD
GOODS

WHITE
GOODS

INDUSTRIAL
PRODUCTS

UNSOUGHT
GOODS

FAST
MOVING
CONSUME
R GOODS
F.M.C.G.

SPECIALITY
GOODS/
LUXURY
GOODS

BROWN
GOODS

DRY
GOODS

PRODUCT: Key Terms

To refer to a companys products, as a group:

PRODUCT CATALOGUE / MIX / PORTFOLIO

To refer to a companys products of a
particular type: PRODUCT ITEM / MODEL /
LINE / RANGE
To refer to the way a company would like its
products to be seen in relation to other /
competing products: PRODUCT
POSITIONING
PRODUCT PLACEMENT

BRAND
BRAND NAME: the name given to a

product or a group of
products as that it can be
recognized.

easily

MAKE:

the name of the company

itself
MODEL:

the particular type of product

BRAND:

COLLOCATIONS

I. BRAND AWARENESS / FAMILIARITY /

RECOGNITION
II. BRAND PROMISE
III.BRAND IMAGE
IV.BRAND IDENTITY
V. BRAND PREFERENCE / LOYALTY vs.
BRAND
SWITCHING
VI. BRAND EQUITY

BRAND:

COLLOCATIONS

From the companys perspective:

BRAND POSITIONING
BRAND DIFFERENTIATION
BRAND STRETCHING / EXTENSION
BRAND DILUTION
BRAND LEADER / FLAGSHIP BRAND
BRAND X

BRANDED
PRODUCTS

MANUFACTURE
RS BRAND
PRIVATE
BRANDS
OWN BRAND /
LABEL
PRODUCT

UNBRANDED
PRODUCTS

GENERIC
PRODUCTS

PRODUCT: Informal
Register
PLAIN VANILLA
A product lacking
adornments or special
features; basic or
ordinary

BELLS AND

WHISTLES
Innovative and flashy, but
often unnecessary and
confusing, features of a
product

PRODUCT: COLOURS

RED GOODS: Consumer goods, such

as food products, that are consumed

and replaced at a fast rate and have a
low profit margin.
ORANGE GOODS: consumer goods,

such as clothing, that will last for a

period of time but will be replaced, at a
moderate rate, because of wear and
tear, desire to change, or change in
season, or at the discretion of the
consumer.
YELLOW GOODS: In merchandising,

nonconsumable household goods, such

as refrigerators or ovens, that are
expensive and are usually replaced only
after many years of service. Generally,
yellow goods have a high profit margin.

Oran
ge
Red good
good s
s

Yello
w
good
s

 PRICE BOOM:
prices are rising
PRICE:
COLLOCATIONS
CEILING: the maximum level of a price

CONTROL: government effort to limit price

increases
CUT/REDUCTION: a reduction in price
HIKE: an increase in price
LABEL/TAG: the label attached to goods
showing the price
LEADER: a company that dictates price
reductions or hikes
WAR: when competing companies reduce
prices in response to each other

TYPES OF PRICE
FACTORY PRICE
COST PRICE (SELLING PRICE =
PURCHASE/PRODUCTION PRICE)
CATALOGUE / LIST PRICE
MARKET PRICE / RETAIL PRICE / CURRENT PRICE

/ SPOT PRICE

NET PRICE

PRICE /

VS.

CUT PRICE / DISCOUNT

BARGAIN PRICE

PRICE:

UPMARKET &
BASIC MODEL SOPHISTICATED MODEL
DOWNMARKET
ENTRY LEVEL / LOW-END / HIGH-END / TOP-END

BOTTOM-END PRODUCTPRODUCT
MID-RANGED PRODUCT
1. From basic products to high-end products:

MOVE UPMARKET
TRADE UP
2. From sophisticated products to mid-ranged or basic
ones:
MOVE DOWNMARKET / DOWNSCALE
TRADE DOWN

PRICE:

MASS AND NICHE

MARKETS
MASS MARKET / MAINSTREAM MARKET:

goods that sell in large quantities and the

people who buy them
NICHE MARKET:
a small group of buyers with special needs,
which may be profitable to sell to.

PLACE(MENT)
DISTRIBUTION LOGISTICS DELIVERY
Involves
arranging for a
product to pass
from one
business to
another until it
reaches
somewhere, for
example a
shop /store,
where people can
buy it.

Involves
physically
collecting,
transporting
and
delivering
goods.

Involves
giving the
goods to
the
customer.

DISPATC
H
Refers to
the
process of
goods
leaving a
factory or
office.

DISTRIBUTION
CHANNELS
DIRECT (telemarketing, mail-order, catalogue

shopping, online shopping, shop-at-home TV

networks )
INDIRECT (distributors, middlemen, resellers,
dealers, wholesalers, retailers)

THE SUPPLY CHAIN

Supplies materials and

SUPPLIER/ VENDOR

parts
Supplies finished goods

WHOLESALERS (sell in

large
quantities)
RETAILERS (sell to the
public)
RESELLERS (esp. for IT)
CONSUMERS
BUSINESSES

PRODUCER

DISTRIBUTORS

CUSTOMERS

SHOPS / STORES / RETAIL OUTLETS

/ SALES OUTLETS

CHAIN
STORE
Part of a group of
shops, all with the
same name

SHOPS / STORES / RETAIL OUTLETS

/ SALES OUTLETS

CONVENIEN
CE
STORE
A small shop in a
residential area,
usually open long
hours

SHOPS / STORES / RETAIL OUTLETS

/ SALES OUTLETS

DEPARTME
NT
STORE
A shop which has
several
specialized
departments

SHOPS / STORES / RETAIL OUTLETS

/ SALES OUTLETS

DEEP
DISCOUNTE
R
A supermarket
with very low
prices

SHOPS / STORES / RETAIL OUTLETS

/ SALES OUTLETS

DRUGSTOR
E
A shop in a town
centre in the US
which sells
medicines; you
can also have
coffee and meals
there.

SHOPS / STORES / RETAIL OUTLETS

/ SALES OUTLETS

HYPERMAR
KET
Very large shop
with a wide
variety of goods,
usually outside of
a town

SHOPS / STORES / RETAIL OUTLETS /

SALES OUTLETS

SUPERMAR
KET
Very large shop
selling mainly
food

SHOPS / STORES / RETAIL OUTLETS /

SALES OUTLETS
SHOPPING
CENTRE /
PRECINCT
A purpose-built area
or building in a town
centre with a number
of shops

SHOPPING
MALL
An area with shops
outside towns,
having much parking
space

TYPES OF PROMOTION
MEDIA TV

SPECIAL PROMOTIONS free gifts

radio
cinema
newspapers and
magazines
Internet
PRINTED MATERIALS inserts

inside
magazines
flyers
booklets
leaflets
brochures
catalogues

limited offers
coupons in
magazines
loyalty cards
special offers
competitions
with prizes
IN-STORE
free samples
merchandising
P.O.S. displays
free tasting
OTHER product placement
endorsement
telephone sales
sponsorship
trade fair stands

ADVERTISING
ADVERTISING:

(uncount.) the activity of

telling customers about products or services,
or the materials that companies use in
general to do this.
ADVERTISEMENT: a particular piece of
advertising, such as a notice about a product.
(ADVERT, AD)

To place/ put/ run / take out an advertisement

ADVERTISING
ADVERTORIAL

an advertisement in a newspaper or magazine

that is like a written article and seems to be
giving facts rather than advertising a product.
INFOMERCIAL / INFORMERCIAL
a long commercial on television or the
internet that tries to give a lot of information
about a subject, so that it does not appear to
be a commercial.

ADVERTISING: KEY
WORDS
COPYRIGHTER
ART DIRECTOR
SLOGAN
JINGLE
LOGO
ADVERTISING

BUDGET
ADVERTISING BRIEF
MEDIA PLANNING

SALES
AGENT: given authority to carry out a particular

piece of business on smb.s behalf (estate agent)

BROKER: a person who buys and sells investments
or financial products on behalf of others
Both A and B work independently or as part of their

own companies and receive a fee for their services

DEALER: buys and sells a particular type of

product (art/car/diamond dealer)

SALES REPRESENTATIVE / REPRESENTATIVE /
SALES REP: works as an employee of a company,
selling their goods or services to people in a
particular area.

SALE vs. SALES vs. THE

SALES
SALE
1.

2.

3.

An act or the process of selling sth.:

To close / complete / lose / make a sale

An occasion when a shop sells its goods at a
lower price than usual:

The sale starts on 28 December.

THE SALES: period when many shops are selling
goods at low prices
An occasion when goods are sold, esp. an
auction:

A contemporary art sale

SALE: IDIOMS
FOR SALE:
ON SALE:

available to be bought
1. available to be bought, esp.
in a shop or store
2. being offered at a reduced

price

SALES
1. the amount of goods or services sold
quarterly / annual / high / strong / weak / slow
sales
To boost / generate sales
2. the business of selling things, the department

of a company that is responsible for selling

things
He works in sales.
Sales department / director / manager / staff /

team / force
Sales pitch