Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Frequency-Hopping
Systems
hop duration
The time interval between hops
The hopping band has bandwidth W MB
dehopping
The mixing operation removes the frequency-hopping
pattern from the received signal.
Frequency hopping enables signals to hop out of frequency
channels with interference or slow frequency-selective fading.
spectral notching
Some spectral regions with steady interference or a
susceptibility to fading may be omitted from the hopset.
5
Transmission security
The specific algorithm for generating the control bits is
determined by the key and the time-of-day (TOD).
The key is a set of bits that are changed infrequently and
must be kept secret.
The TOD is a set of bits that are derived from the stages of
the TOD counter and change with every transition of the
TOD clock.
The purpose of the TOD is to vary the generator algorithm
without constantly changing the key.
The generator algorithm is controlled by a time-varying key.
The code clock, which regulates the changes of state in the
code generator and thereby controls the hop rate, operates at a
much higher rate than the TOD clock.
7
Dwell interval
A frequency-hopping pulse with a fixed carrier frequency
occurs during a portion of the hop interval.
dwell time
The duration of the dwell interval during which the channel
symbols are transmitted.
The hop duration Th is equal to the sum of the dwell time Td and
the switching time Tsw.
The switching time is equal to the dead time plus the rise and
fall times of a pulse.
dead time is the duration of the interval when no signal is
present
The nonzero switching time decreases the transmitted symbol
duration Ts .
If Tso is the symbol duration in the absence of frequency hopping,
then
The reduction in symbol duration expands the transmitted
spectrum and thereby reduces the number of frequency channels
within a fixed hopping band.
9
12
13
3.2 Modulations
FH/MFSK system
Uses MFSK as its data modulation.
One of q frequencies is selected as the carrier or center
frequency for each transmitted symbol, and the set of q
possible frequencies changes with each hop.
An FH/MFSK signal has the form
15
17
Soft-Decision Decoding
We consider an FH/MFSK system that uses a repetition code and
the receiver of Figure 3.5(b).
Each information symbol, which is transmitted as L code
symbols, may be regarded as a codeword or as an uncoded
symbol that uses diversity combining.
The interference is modeled as wideband Gaussian noise
uniformly distributed over part of the hopping band.
Slow frequency hopping with a fixed hop rate and ideal
interleaving.
The optimal metric for the Rayleigh-fading channel and a good
metric for the additive-white-Gaussian-noise (AWGN) channel
without fading is the Rayleigh metric which is
18
19
Variable-gain metric:
21
where
22
23
24
26
27
28
29
30
32
33
34
35
36
3.4 Applications
Anti-jamming is an important application for spread spectrum
modulations.
In addition to anti-jamming, we will briefly introduce several
other spread spectrum applications in this section.
In describing these applications, we focus on DS-SS systems.
One should note that other spread spectrum techniques also have
similar applications since the main idea behind these applications
is the spreading of the spectrum.
37
3.4.1 Anti-jamming
We know that we can combat a wide-band Gaussian jammer by
spreading the spectrum of the data signal.
Here we consider another kind of jammersthe continuous wave
(CW) jammers.
Suppose the spread spectrum signal is given by
and
We can easily see that the power spectrum of the received signal
r(t) is given by
It can be shown that the power spectrum of the despread signal z(t)
is
42
43
45
46
Loosely speaking, we can resolve multipaths with pathdelay differences larger than 1/W seconds when the
transmission bandwidth is W Hz.
Therefore, spreading the spectrum helps to resolve
multipaths and, hence, combats fading.
The best way to explain multipath fading is to go
through the following simple example.
Suppose the transmitter sends a bit with the value +1
in the BPSK format, i.e., the transmitted signal envelope
is pT (t), where T is the symbol duration.
47
48
49
Figure 3.13: Matched filter output for the two-path channel without spreading
50
51
where
DS-SS system is
Figure 3.14: Matched filter output for the two-path channel with spreading
53
54
3.5 References
[1] R. L. Peterson, R. E. Ziemer, and D. E. Borth, Introduction to Spread
Spectrum Communications, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1995.
[2] M. B. Pursley, Performance evaluation for phase-coded spread-spectrum
multiple-access communication Part I: System analysis, IEEE Trans.
Commun., vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 795799, Aug. 1977.
[3] R. A. Scholtz, Multiple access with time-hopping impulse modulation, Proc.
MILCOM 93, pp. 11-14, Boston, MA, Oct. 1993.
[4] N. Yee, J. M. G. Linnartz, and G. Fettweis, Multi-carrier CDMA in indoor
wireless radio networks, IEICE Trans. Commun., vol. E77-B, no. 7, pp. 900
904, Jul. 1994.
[5] S. Kondo and L. B. Milstein, Performance of multicarrier DS CDMA
systems, IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 238246, Feb. 1996.
[6] R. L. Pickholtz, L. B. Milstein, and D. L. Schilling, Spread spectrum for
mobile communications, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 313
321, May 1991.
[7] D. Torrieri, Principles of spread spectrum communications theory, Springer
2005.
55