Semiconductor Physics

As The Basis For

Understanding
Electronic Devices
Metals have a large number of weakly bound electrons in what is
called their
conduction band.
The electrons migrate freely producing a current through the
metal when an
electric field is applied to a metal.
The ease by which large currents can flow in metals, they are
called conductors.
Other materials have atoms with valence electrons that are
tightly bound, an
when an electric field is applied, the electrons do not move
easily.
These materials are called insulators and do not normally
sustain large electric
currents.
Materials have properties somewhere between conductors and

Valence and conduction bands

of materials

When a voltage is applied across a semiconductor, some of

the valence electrons easily jump to the conductance band
and then move in the electric field to produce a current,
although smaller than that which would be produced in a
conductor.

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Junction Diode

pn junction
charecteristics

In the top at pn junction, electrons from the n-type silicon

can diffuse to occupy the holes in the p-type silicon,
creating what is called a depletion region.
A voltage difference across the depletion region called the
contact potential.
For silicon, the contact potential is on the order of 0.6 0.7
V.

 If a voltage source is connected to the pn junction with the

positive side of the voltage source connected to the anode
and th negative side connected to the cathode forming a
complete circuit, the diode is said to be forward biased.

Silicon diode

Examples of common
diodes

Ideal, approximate, and real

diode curves

The current-voltage charecteristic curve for the ideal

diode is shown by the dark solid lines.

 This model implies that the diode is fully on for any voltage
greater than or equal to 0.
When reverse biased, the reverse saturation current is
assumed to be 0.
The real diode is given by the dashed lines as this replicates
the real voltage drop of 0.6 to 0.7 V measured across the
silicon diode when it is forward biased.
An ideal diode has zero resistance when forward biased and
infinite resistance when reverse biased.
It can be replaced by a short circuit if it is forward biased and
an open circuit if it is reverse biased.
A diode is useful as a rectifier, where it passes only the
positive half or the negative half of an AC signal.
NOTE: See Example 3.1 Half-Wave Rectifier
Circuit Assuming
an Ideal Diode.

Zener Diode

Zener diode
symbol and
current-voltage
relationship

Zener diode voltage

regulator

The zener current is related to the circuit voltages

according to

NOTE: See Example 3.2 Zener Regulation

Performance.

Voltage Regulators
Although the zener diode voltage regulator is cheap and simple
to use, it has some drawbacks.
The output voltage cannot be set to a precise values, and
regulation against source ripple and changes in load is limited.
One group of regulators that is easy to use is the three-terminal
regulator designated as the 78XX, where the last two digits (XX)
specify a voltage with standard values: 5 (05), 12, or 15 V.
Using a regulator such as the LM7815C, a well-regulated 15 V
source is easy to create.

15 V regulated DC
supply
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 A regulated voltage source with a value not provided in a

manufacturers standard sequence.
Use a three-terminal regulator designed to be adjustable by
the addition of external resistors.
The LM317L can provide an adjustable output with the
addition of two external resistors.
The output voltage is given
by

1.2 to 37 V adjustable
regulator

Optoelectronic
Diodes
Light-emitting diodes are diodes that emit photons when
forward biased.
The typical LED and its schematic symbol are illustrated in
figure below,

Light-emitting
diodes

Typical LED circuit in

digital systems

Photodiode light
detector circuit

Analysis of Diode
Circuits
The following procedure is a straightforward method to
determine voltages and currents in these circuits:
1.Assume current directions for each circuit element.
2.Replace each diode with an equivalent open circuit if the
assumed current is in a reverse bias direction or a short
circuit If it is in the forward bias direction.
3.Compute the voltage drops and currents in the circuit loops
using KVL and KCL.
4.If the sign on a resulting current is opposite to the
assumed direction through an element, you have made the
wrong assumption and must change its direction reanalyze
the circuit.
5.Repeat this procedure with different combinations of
current directions until there are no inconsistencies
between assumed and calculated voltage drops and
currents.
NOTE: See Example 3.3 Analysis of Circuit with More
Than One Diode.

Bipolar Junction
Transistor

npn bipolar junction

transistor

pnp bipolar junction

transistor

Figure above shows the construction, schematic and notation

for the pnp BJT.
To understand how the npn BJT functions, we begin by
considering the base-to-emitter junction.
This characteristic can be approximated with the following

equation:

Common Emitter
Transistor Circuit
If a BJTs emitter is grounded and an input voltage is applied to
the base, the result is the common emitter circuit.

The collector cannot drop completely to ground; otherwise, the

base-to-collector pn junction would also be forward biased.

Common emitter characteristics for

a transistor

NOTE: See Example 3.4 Guaranteeing That a Transistor Is

in Saturation.

Bipolar Transistor
Switch

Transistor switch circuit

Models for Transistor Switch States

Bipolar Transistor
Packages

Bipolar Transistor Packages

Various Common Transistor

Packages

Darlington Transistor
The advantage of this combination is that the current gain
is the product of the two individual transistor gains and
can exceed 10,000.

Phototransistor and
Optoisolator

Optoisolator

Field-Effect
Transistors
The field-effect transistor (FET) operates on a different principle
than the BJT but serves a similar role in mechatronic system
design.
Both the BJT and FET are three-terminal devices allowing us to
draw analogies between their function and how they are used in
circuits.
Both BJTs and FETs operate by controlling current between two
terminals using a voltage applied to a third terminal.
The BJT is a current amplifier.
A FET can be described as a transconductance amplifier, which
means the output current is controlled by an input voltage.
The control electrode in the FET, called the gate, is analogous to
the base of the BJT.
The FET gate draws no direct current (DC) because it is insulated
from the substrate to which it is attached.
Conducting channel, whose conductivity is controlled by the gate,
kies between the drain, which is analogous to the BJT collector,
and the source, which is analogous to the BJT emitter.
There are three families of FETs: enhancement-mod metaloxide-semiconductor FETs (MOSPETs), depletion mode
MOSFETs, and junction field-effect transistors (JFETs) is available

 The cross section and schematic symbol for an n-channel

enhancement-mode MOSFETs is illustrated in figure below:

n-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET

Enhancement-mode MOSFET nchannel formation

As illustrated in the figure, when a positive DC voltage is

applied to the gate, an electric field formed in the substrate
below the gate repels holes in the p-type substrate leaving a
narrow layer or channel in the substrate in which electrons
predominate.
This referred to as an n-channel in the p-type substrate.

Behaviour of FieldEffect Transistors

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Symbols
Representing FieldEffect Transistors

The terminal designations are G for gate, S for source, D for

drain, and B for substrate.

Applications of
MOSFETs

MOSFET power switch circuit