General Psychology

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Introduction & Research Methods
Linda S. Krajewski, MA
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The Origins of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of
behavior and mental processes
A relatively new science influenced by
philosophy and physiology as well as
other fields

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Origins: Philosophy
Aristotle wrote about sleep, dreams,
senses, memory, traits and dispositions,
perception, thinking, and motivation over
2,000 years ago
Ren Descartes (1596-1650) interactive
dualism: separate mind and body interact
to produce conscious experiences
The nature-nurture debate heredity vs.
environmental factors
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Origins: Physiology
Physiology studies the functions and parts
of living organisms
Interest in the brains influence on
behavior began in 1600s
Damage to one side of brain affected
opposite side of body noted in 1700s
Different brain areas related to different
behavioral functions debated by 1800s
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Important People
in Early Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Widely considered to be the founder of psychology
Used scientific methods to study fundamental
psychological processes
Defined psychology as the study of consciousness
and emphasized the use of experimental methods to
study and measure consciousness
First psychology laboratory at University of Leipzig in
1879

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Important People
in Early Psychology
Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927)
Student of Wundt
Structuralism: categorizing human behaviors into their
most basic elements (looking at what happens)
Structuralisms method was introspection
Introspections flaws: unreliable, could not study children or
animals, impossible to study complex topics

Titchener welcomed women into his graduate classes

in psychology at a time where this was rare

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Important People
in Early Psychology
William James (1842-1910)
Instrumental in establishing psychology in the United
States
Influenced by Darwin: importance of adaptation to
environmental challenges
Principles of Psychology (1890): classic
comprehensive psychology textbook
Functionalism: examining human behaviors for their
purposes (looking at how and why something
happens)
Functionalisms method: direct observation of living
creatures in natural settings
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Important People
in Early Psychology
G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
First PhD in psychology in the United States
First psychology research laboratory in the
United States
Founded the American Psychological
Association (APA) in 1892

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Important People
in Early Psychology
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
Completed all requirements for PhD at
Harvard but was not granted degree because
she was a woman
Continued in psychological research
Established psychology laboratory at
Wellesley College
First woman president of APA

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Important People
in Early Psychology
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)
First woman to be awarded PhD in
psychology in the United States
Titcheners first doctoral student at Cornell
University
Influential research on mental processes of
different animal species

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Important People
in Early Psychology
Francis C. Sumner (1895-1954)
Student of Hall
First African-American PhD in psychology
Prolific researcher
Kenneth Bancroft Clark, a notable student of
Sumner, influenced US Supreme Courts 1954
decision to end segregated schools and
became first African-American president of
APA
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Important People
in Early Psychology
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalysis: personality theory and form
of psychotherapy that emphasize the role of
unconscious factors in personality and
behavior
Freud believed human behavior was
motivated by unconscious conflicts regarding
sex and aggression
Freud will be discussed in detail later in the
semester
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Important People
in Early Psychology
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
Behaviorism: only observable behaviors that
could be objectively measured and verified
were important to psychological study
Stemmed from physiologys influence
Examined principles of learning
Behaviorism dominated psychology in the
United States for almost half a century

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Important People
in Early Psychology
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Humanistic psychology: emphasis on
conscious experience, potential for
psychological growth, and self-direction
Reaffirmation of positive aspects of being
human
Self-determination, free will, and making
choices

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Contemporary Psychology
Many perspectives
Biological
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Humanistic
Positive psychology
Cognitive
Cross-cultural
Evolutionary
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Cross-Cultural Psychology
Culture: attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors
shared by a group of people and communicated
from one generation to the next
Cross-cultural psychology examines the
influence of culture on behavior
Any given culture has many norms -- unwritten
rules of behavior -- that seem normal and
natural to the cultures members
Ethnocentrism: tendency to use ones own
cultures as a standard for judging other cultures
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Cross-Cultural Psychology:
An Example
Individualistic culture
Collectivistic culture
No perfectly individualistic or no perfectly
collectivistic culture exists
Wide variation in individual members of a
culture

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Specialty Areas in Psychology

Biological
Clinical
Cognitive
Counseling
Educational
Experimental
Developmental
Forensic

Health
Industrial/organizational
Military
Personality
Rehabilitation
School
Social
Sports . . . and more!
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Specialty Areas and Employment

Settings of Psychologists

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Whats the difference

between a psychologist and a psychiatrist?
Both trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes,
and prevention of psychological disorders
Clinical psychologists receive doctorate (PhD or
PsyD)
Psychiatrists receive a medical degree (MD or DO)
followed by years of specialized training in treatment
of mental disorders
Psychiatrists can prescribe medication;
psychologists cannot prescribe medication except
with special training in New Mexico and Louisiana
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Goals of Psychology
Describing behavior to guide and give meaning
to what we see
Explaining behavior to help us understand what
influences the behavior to occur
Predicting behavior to allow us to know what to
do to improve human well-being (in other words,
to modify behavior)
Influencing behavior though the application of
what we have learned about improving human
well-being
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The Scientific Method

The approach used by psychologists and other
scientists to systematically acquire knowledge
and understanding about behavior and other
phenomena of interest
It is a set of assumptions, attitudes, and
procedures that guide researchers in creating
questions to investigate, in generating evidence,
and in drawing conclusions

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The Scientific Method

Formulate testable questions
Develop hypotheses
Design study to collect data
Experimental
Descriptive
Analyze data to arrive at conclusions
Use of statistical procedures
Use of meta-analysis
Report the findings
Publication
Replication
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Scientific Method: Definitions

Empirical evidence: based upon objective
observation, measurement, and/or experimentation
Hypothesis: tentative statement about the specific
relationship between variables
Variables: factors that can vary in ways that can be
observed, measured, and verified (independent
versus dependent)
Operational definition: precise description of how the
variables will be measured
Theory: an organized system of assumptions and
principles that purports to explain a specified set of
phenomena and their relationships
Replication: the repetition of research in order to
increase confidence in prior findings
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Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research methods are those
which yield descriptions of behavior but
not necessarily explanations for the
causes of the behavior
Types of descriptive studies include
naturalistic observations, case studies,
surveys, and correlational studies

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Descriptive Research Methods

Naturalistic observation: investigator
observes naturally occurring behavior
without making any changes in the
situation
Real life behavior as it happens
No control over behaviors of interest
Those being observed may alter their
behavior if they know they are being observed

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Descriptive Research Methods

Case study: an in-depth, intensive
investigation of an individual or small
group of people
Often used to study phenomena that do not
occur very often
Findings are often not generalizable
Over time, case studies of similar phenomena
can assist in developing theories

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Descriptive Research Methods

Surveys are questionnaires or interviews
asking people directly about their
experiences, attitudes, and opinions
Qualities of good surveys
Random sampling
Obtain a representative sample
Minimize volunteer bias

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Descriptive Research Methods

A correlational study is a descriptive study
that looks for a consistent relationship
between two (or more) variables
Variables are behaviors, events,
characteristics, etc. that can change or vary in
some way

A correlation is a measure of how strongly

two variables are related to one another
also called correlation coefficient
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Descriptive Research Methods

Positive correlation as A increases, B increases
Negative correlation as A increases, B
decreases
A perfect positive correlation is +1
A perfect negative correlation is -1
What do you think a correlation of zero means?

Correlations DO NOT imply causation!

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www.tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations accessed 7-05-2015

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The Experimental Method

An experiment is a controlled test of a
hypothesis in which the researcher
manipulates one or more variables to
discover their effects on other variables
Independent variable (IV): what the researcher
expects to influence changes in dependent variables
researcher manipulates the IV
Dependent variable (DV): the outcome in
behavior/performance after the IV is applied
researcher measures the DV
Experimental bias: factors that can distort how the IV
affects the DV in an experiment
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The Experimental Method

The responses of a control group is
usually used to make comparisons with
the responses of the experimental group
Participants should be placed in the
control or experimental group by random
assignment
Control group participants are sometimes
given placebos
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The Experimental Method

The expectations of the researcher can
affect the results of a study
Single-blind studies: researcher knows
whether a participant is in the experimental or
control group; participant does not this can
create experimenter effects (related to
confirmation bias)
Double-blind studies: neither researcher nor
participant know whether participant is in the
experimental or control group
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The Experimental Method

Experiments allow researchers to make
conclusions about cause and effect and
can sort out real effects from placebo
effects
However, results from experiments in a
laboratory setting can differ considerably
from results in the real world

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Ethics and Psychological Research

Informed consent and voluntary participation

Students as participants
Use of deception
Confidentiality of information
Information about the study and debriefing
Protection from harm
Knowledge of results
Beneficial treatments
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Animals in Psychological Research

90% of psychology research actually uses
humans, not animals, as subjects.
Many psychologists are interested in the
study of animal behavior for its own sake
(comparative psychology).
Animal subjects are sometimes used for
research that could not feasibly be
conducted on humans.
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Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is the ability and
willingness to assess claims and make
objective judgments on the basis of wellsupported reasons and empirical evidence
rather than on emotions, opinions, or socalled common knowledge
This skill will serve you well not only in
your education, but in your life!
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Critical Thinking
A critical thinker is
Flexible yet maintains an attitude of healthy
skepticism
Scrutinizes the evidence before drawing
conclusions
Can assume other perspectives
Aware of biases and assumptions
Engages in reflective thinking

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Science vs. Pseudoscience

A pseudoscience is a theory, method, or
practice that promotes claims in ways that
appear to be scientific and plausible, even
though supporting empirical evidence is
lacking or non-existent
Read more on pseudoscience on pages
22-23 of your text

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Pseudoscience in Psychology
There are a lot of people who have theories about
human behavior and borrow a lot of psychological terms,
but do not apply the research standards agreed upon by
the scientific community to provide support for their
theories
This psychobabble is so popular because it tends to
confirm existing beliefs and prejudices
Psychology, on the other hand, often presents
considerable challenges to our existing beliefs and
prejudices

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Phrenology: 19th Century

Pseudoscience

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Psychology in the Media

Anecdotes are not scientific evidence
Dramatic or sensational headlines are just
meant to hook you in
Read the actual summary of the study or,
better yet, the study itself
Evaluate the design of the study
Correlation is not causation
Embrace an attitude of healthy scientific
skepticism
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Internet Resources
www.apa.org American Psychological
Association
Has great resources for students
53 different divisions for all types of psychologists

www.psychologicalscience.org Association for

Psychological Science
Primarily oriented to non-clinical fields of psychology

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