Map Projections

and
Coordinate Systems
Choosing Map Projections
GESS 661
Fall Semester 1999

Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Of the theoretically infinite number of map projections
possible, less than 50 are in common use
Within the common application areas there is little
choice in the types of projections used; this is due to:
Specialized needs with respect to accuracy, use, features, etc.
The need to interoperate with other organizations through standards

Atlas maps allow more flexibility in the selection of

projections for relatively small scale maps:
countries, continents, hemispheres, world

Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
GIS / LIS
Files of geographical or positional data in digital form
LIS for legal, administrative, and economic decision-making
The ability to integrate these files or layers which represent different
themes of information from different sources (Figure 11.01)
utilities
surface features
political boundaries
geology
soils
land use
attributes
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
GIS and Map Projections
Display results of analysis (soft or hard copy)
Transformation / registration of multiple layers into a single frame of
reference
Quantitative measurements validation
distance, angles, area, topological logic
density / gradient calculations
adjustments to calculations when in projection coordinates

Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Zero dimension in GIS
Uncertainty and error visually detectable from a map
survey, cartographic process, map projection, cartometric operations
projection distortion is minimal in large-scale mapping for some
applications
approximately .2 mm is the size of the finest point visible to the naked
eye
Generalization is inevitable on maps
some features are exaggerated for legibility
Threshold of perception and threshold of separation (Figure 11.02)
separation required to distinguish 2 separate objects on the ground by
2 symbols on the map
Generalization involves exaggeration, selection, priority of features,
deselection, among other techniques

Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
The zero dimension varies according to the original source
materials
Computers have increased the range of information that is extractable
from source and displayable
The larger the scale the smaller the limiting ground distance of the zero
dimension
This is particularly true of survey-quality aerial photography and other
remotely sensing imagery systems

Digital processing makes what once seemed to be very

small errors in the cartographic production process very
large
Often, we must generalize larger scale, more accurate information to a less
accurate state in order to combine this information with other smaller
scale data
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Converting multiple data sets which are each based on
different sources and projections into one single
projection system is a common and necessary
operation in a GIS
Selecting an internal projection system for the GIS is a
common procedure
Often this is the UTM projection system for relatively large-scale
mapping
For smaller scale mapping, geographic coordinates are typically used
Even here, decisions on internal formats must be decided:
radians, decimal degrees, degrees-minutes-seconds, precision, etc.

Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Factors in choosing a suitable projection
Since all projections have some degree of distortion and generally
distortion increases away from the point or line(s) of zero distortion
toward the map edges, the main objective is to select a projection in
which the extreme distortions are smaller than would occur in any
other projection used to map the same area
Deliberate distortion is sometimes employed to depict certain spatial
relationships, e.g., Hagerstrands logarithmic azimuthal projection to
illustrate population migration
Intended use is therefore a key factor
Location, size, and shape of the area to be mapped are also key
components in selecting a map projection
Location, size, and shape influence the choice of origin, aspect and
class of the projection
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Purpose and intended use usually dictate the required
special property: conformality, equal-area, equidistance
Selecting the specific projection, though, requires an evaluation of the
purpose against the amount and distribution of distortion
For a conformal projection we look at the behavior of area scale near
the boundaries
For an equal-area map we look at angular deformation
A minimum-error projection may be appropriate if neither special
property is required and is nevertheless a good starting point in
selecting the appropriate projection
The expected quantitative uses of a map or chart usually place the
most stringent requirements in map projection selection
Angles for navigation charts and surveying
Areas for statistical mapping
Distance for route planning

Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
General accuracy guidelines for quantitative uses
+/- 1 to 2% precision for area and distance calculations
Up to 1o accuracy for most non-precision applications

Maps of small areas or countries

Choice of projection here is of little significance since on practically
any projection the distortion will not be visually apparent
The distortion in the vicinity of the point or line(s) of zero
distortion is less than the zero dimension
Typically the base topographic map of the country is appropriate
Even if this map is conformal and areal representation / calculation are
important the resultant error is less than 1%

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Maps of large areas or countries
For countries such as Canada or Russia distortion levels of 3% or
greater, or angular deformation of 3o or more must be tolerated
Larger areas will have greater distortion
Equal-area maps of Asia may exhibit angular deformation of 15o
near the edges; of Africa or North America 6 - 8o (Figures 12.01
and 12.02)
Equal-area maps of the world may exhibit 30o angular distortion,
and world maps in general usually exhibit singular points of 180 o
distortion, and indeterminate areal exaggeration

Purpose and shape of the area to be mapped

Arrange for the important parts of the world to lie where distortions
are least
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Modified Projections
Redistribution of particular scales and introducing more than one line of zero
distortion
Introduce special boundary conditions on the map edges
Recentered or interrupted projections
Combinations of projections
Combinations of these modifications

Obstacles
Time involved in compiling, plotting, and redrawing graticules and features,
although this consideration is practically obsolete in our current digital age
Availability of process cameras to perform scale change and optical
rectification
Photogrammetric rectifiers may also be used (Zeiss SEG 1) as well as optical
pantographs (Grant projector and Rost Plan Variograph)

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Obstacles
Rectifications are limited by graticule projection
Transformation of a rectilinear graticule to one of curves is not possible
For example, normal aspect cylinderical to normal aspect conical

Specialized optical equipment has been used in certain situations but is

expensive
Historically, use of previous materials was preferred over compiling a new
graticule, master grid, and transferring coordinates due to the time involved
Digital techniques have made obsolete many of these considerations but
data capture still remains as an obstacle
Vector digitization is more time consuming than raster scanning but
raster data has its limitations
Digital representation has introduced its own set of problems, some
very costly: data storage, access, dissemination, reproduction

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Obstacles
In the digital realm, the concept is based on scale-free databases
which originate from the largest scale source available
Smaller scale products are made from the master database
The concept is sound but data coverage while reasonable at
relatively small scales is fairly sparce at larger scales for much of the
world
Small scale worldwide products include, World Data Banks I and II,
and the Digital Chart of the World

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Choice of origin, aspect and class
General rules:
Cylindrical projections for countries in the tropics
principal scale preserved along the equator
Conical projections for countries in the temperate zones
principal scale preserved along a parallel of latitude
Azimuthal projections for the polar regions
principal scale preserved at the pole

Other general rules

Locate the point or line of zero distortion in the center of the area
Orient the lines of zero distortion through the longer axis of the area
Orientation effects aspect
Shape effects class

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
These rules have been regarded as one of the classical
foundations of cartographic design in the selection of map
projections and production of atlas maps since the 16th
century
However, the rules are limiting with respect to todays
technology
Consideration of other map projection classes was not practised
Use of other aspects has not been common
Figures 10.02, 10.03, and 10.04 for normal, transverse, and oblique
aspects of the equal-area azimuthal
Transverse and oblique cylindrical projections have not been used for
atlas maps although they have been for large-scale topographic mapping
Transverse and oblique conical projections are rare with an exception
shown in Figure 11.03

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Selecting the point of origin
Calculate the center of gravity of the land mass to be mapped
Select this exact point or the nearest graticule intersection
This is no longer an issue of simplifying calculations but may be
desirable from an aesthetic standpoint
Table 11.01 gives suggested origins for maps of the continents

Selecting the line(s) of zero distortion

Orient the line of zero distortion along the major axis through the
country
Use two standard parallels where appropriate
Use normal, transverse, or oblique aspect depending on shape and
orientation

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Youngs Rule for selecting projection class
Generally, select azimuthal for circular countries and cylindrical or
conical for asymmetrical countries
The rule is based on the measurements z and of the country to be
mapped (Figure 11.04)
z is the maximum angular distance from the center of the country
to the most distant boundary
is the minimum distance between two bounding parallel arcs
of small circles
shortest distance between arcs
independent of orientation

Young suggests z/ < 1.41 equates to an azimuthal projection; >

1.41 equates to a cylindrical or conical projection

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Ginzberg and Salmanova suggest three critical values related to
special properties:

Conformal
z/ = 1.41
Equidistant z/ = 1.73
Equal-area
z/ = 2.00
Chile (z/ = 2.3) - conical or cylindrical; Australia (z/ = .63) - azimuthal

Selecting special property

Largely determined by the intended purpose
Conformal and equal-area projections are mutually exclusive and are
considered at the opposite ends of the spectrum of choice
Conformal projections have large areal exaggeration
Equal-area projections have large angular distortion
There are many projection / special property choices between these
two extremes

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Selecting special property
Figures 11.05, 11.06, and 11.07 show areal exaggeration (p) and
angular deformation () against z and for the projection classes
Note areal exaggeration and angular distortion of conformal and
equal-area properties versus the equidistant property
Equidistant projections provide a reasonable compromise
Table 11.02 summarizes a distortion continuum by special property
and use
Table 11.03 indicates that equidistant and minimum error projections
of the same class have similar distortion characteristics

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Minimum-error representation
Based on premise that the sums of the squares of scale errors
throughout the mapped area are minimized (Eq. 6.33)
Not an exclusive property
e.g., minimum-error conformal retains special property
While minimum-error is a good choice for relatively small-scale
mapping it has been seldom used
Four examples: Airy, Clarke, Hinks, Sears
Mathematically difficult
Not widely known
Table 11.03 shows little difference in distortion between Airys
minimum-error projection and the Azimuthal equidistant

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Redistribution of particular scales
Introduce a standard circle or 2 standard parallels (Figures 5.08, 5.09,
5.10)
Two standard parallels have the following characteristics:
Principal scale is preserved on both standard parallels
Between the standard parallels and map edges, the maximum
and minimum particular scales behave similar to the unmodified
projection
Between the standard parallels, the directions of the maximum
and minimum scales are reversed
No effect on special property
Reduces deformation toward edges (Tables 10.02, 10.03)
No effect on singular points
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Modification of cylindrical projections
Ratio of the length of the equator and a meridian is altered
For conformal projections, since a = b a single scale factor may be
applied to coordinates to effect the change
The scale factor value is the scale of the line of zero distortion on the
unmodified projection
This value results in scales of 1 on the 2 standard parallels
Typically used in Transverse Mercator and Lambert Conformal Conic
projections

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Choice of standard parallels
de lIsle projection standard parallels are located halfway between the
central and bounding parallels of the map area
However, not all map areas are symmetrical
Kavraisky K constant is a shape measure (Figure 11.08)
K = 7: short latitude and large longitude extent
K = 5: long latitude and short longitude extent
K = 4: circular
K = 3: square
2 = N - ( N - S) / K
(Eq. 11.01)

1 = S + ( N - S) / K (Eq. 11.02)
These are general equations compared to equations 10.42 and 10.43
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections
Creation of a pole-line
Normal aspect Cylindrical equal-area projection has singlular point
poles equal in length to the equator: unrealistic
Normal aspect Sinusoidal projection shows poles as point: extreme
distortion near edges
Use of a pole-line can reduce distortion
Implemented by a constant which creates a singular point at the
poles
Length is determined by the constant value
One half the equator is common
Eckert VI pseudocylindrical (Figure 13.05) is referred to as a
truncated or flat polar projection
Pole-lines may also be curved (Aitoff-Wagner in Figure 1.05)
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Map Projections
and
Coordinate Systems
Choosing Map Projections (II)
Graphical & Analytical Methods
GESS 661
Fall Semester 1999

Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections (II) - Graphical and Analytical Methods

Graphical methods of selection by visual comparison of

overlays
Based on transparencies or overlays of different layers of distortion
isograms
Just like any standard registration process; requires the same scale,
origin, and axes
Parallels and meridians are typically not shown
Showing points/lines of zero distortion are helpful
Overlays are placed over a rough sketch of the area to be mapped
Shifting the overlays can suggest better positioning of the origin or
aspect since distortion patterns are tied to the points/lines of zero
distortion
Two or more overlays of different projections can illustrate extreme
values for p or for each projection
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections (II) - Graphical and Analytical Methods

Comparison of Bonnes projection and the Azimuthal equalarea (Figure 12.01)

Both are equal-area; Bonnes is pseudoconical
Same origin
From graphical analysis, the Azimuthal projection seems preferable

Studying extreme values graphically is only one criteria;

analysis of distortion values in other areas of the map is
also important (e.g., at the map center - covered in Chapter
13)
Overlays against rough sketches provide estimates only,
and just for that particular origin and aspect
See Figure 12.02: Conical equidistant (de lIsle) projection and the Azimuthal
equidistant (Postel); isograms of at 1o and 2o
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections (II) - Graphical and Analytical Methods

Combined graphical and analytical methods

Summary of the technique used that led to the choice of the Bipolar
oblique conformal conical projection of Latin America by Miller, 1941
(Figure 11.03)
First, specify limiting values of distortion
e.g., for a conformal map we might specify .95 < p < 1.05
which
equates to an aread distortion that never exceeds +/- 5%
or
we might specify the limiting values in terms of linear distortion
.965 < < 1.035 or not to exceed +/- 3.5%
Figures 12.03, 12.04, and 12.05 show the area to be mapped - S. America
and C. America
Preliminary origin is 0 = 00, 0 = 72oW
Youngs rule gives z/ = 1.4 which suggests a conformal map
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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections (II) - Graphical and Analytical Methods

Miller analyzed the following projections

Transverse Stereographic, Normal Mercator, Transverse Mercator; =
1.035 or +/- 3.5% (Figure 12.03)
Modified versions of the above with .965 < < 1.035 or +/-3.5%; = .965 at
the origin (Figure 12.04)
A much larger part of the area to be mapped is within the distortion
constraints in the modified versions making the modified versions
preferable
Miller sampled other points within the mapping area to evaluate distortion
at other than the extreme portions
Table 12.01 shows the average and maximum scale distortion
percentages for the modified projections based on a sample of 49
points
The Stereographic is preferable to the other two but still does not
meet the +/- 3.5% distortion criteria for the entire area

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections (II) - Graphical and Analytical Methods

Selection of the Oblique aspect Conformal Conical

projection (Figures 12.05 and 11.03)
Location of the pole at 20o S and 110o W
Centerline z0; z3 and z4 defining the limits; and z1 and z2 the standard
parallels
K = 7 initially selected; K = 8 was the final choice
Analysis of 49 points gave an average percentage distortion of +/1.8% and a max of 9.8%; clearly superior to the other choices shown
in Table 12.01
A second pole was selected in the Atlantic to cover N. America to give
the bipolar version

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections (II) - Graphical and Analytical Methods

Selection of a projection for internal storage within a GIS

for Europe
Projections compared
Albers conical equal-area; Figure 12.06 and Table 12.02
Table 12.03 reflects an equal distribution of the standard parallels between the
limiting parallels with a slight improvement in distortion characteristics

Murdochs third projection; minimum-error conical; Table 12.04; scale

factors k, p and are comparable to Albers
Albers oblique
Pole in northern Russia (55oN, 43oE)
Table 12.05 shows particular scales for the extremes of the map
An improvement over the normal aspect Albers

Azimuthal equal-area
Table 12.06 gives distortion characteristics based on the center point 48 oN and 9oE
Best choice

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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Choosing Map Projections (II) - Graphical and Analytical Methods

Automatic methods

Automatic calculation of distortion overlays

Automatic analysis
Registration and overlay against map background
Work by Bugaevskii (82); and Jankowski and Nyerges (89), the latter
implemented in a system titled Map Projection Knowledge-Based System
MPKBS asks a series of questions from the general to the specific (page
264)

Geographical area category

Category object
Geographic attributes of object
Map function
Geometric properties
Type of display
Map scale
Chosen projection

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