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Mechanics
At the turn of the last century, there were several
experimental observations which could not be
explained by the established laws of classical physics
and called for a radically different way of thinking.
Bohr model of
atom-Quantum
model
Rutherford model
Classical models
Quantum theory of spectra (Origin of Characteristic x-rays )
hv
Hydrogen
spectra
Black Body Radiation
A black body is an object that absorbs
100% of the radiation that hits it.
Therefore it reflects no radiation and
appears perfectly black.
2πckBT
I ( λ,T ) =
λ4
where n = 0,1,2,... is an
integer, v is the frequency
of vibration of the
molecule, and h is a
constant, now called 2hv
Planck's constant: hv
h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js .
Quantum prediction
Planck’s Model, Graphs
Planck’s Wavelength
Distribution Function
Planck’s Wavelength Distribution Function
Planck generated a theoretical expression for the
wavelength distribution
2πhc 2
I ( λ ,T ) = 5 hcλk T
λ (e B
− 1)
hν -W0=1/2mv2
hv
Actual results:
h (ν - ν 0) = 1/2mv2
Hint:
1/2mv2
h (ν - ν 0) = 1/2mv2 W
hv
h ν - hν 0 = 1/2mv2
As hν 0 = W = 3 eV
And λ 0 = c/ ν 0 Ao
Numerical Questions related to photo electric effect
Q 1.5 mW of 400 nm light is directed at a photoelectric cell. If 0.10 percent of the incident
photons produce photoelectrons, find the current in the cell.
Hint:
hc 6.62 ×10 −34 Js ×3 ×10 8 m / s
E= =
λ 400 ×10 −9 m
E = 3.103 eV .
no . of photons emitted correspond ing to the
power of the incident light 1.5 m V
1.5 ×10 −3 W 1.5 ×10 −3 kgm 2 s −3 1.5 ×10 −3 Js −1 1.5 ×10 −3 eVs −1
n= = = =
3.103 eV 3.103 eV 3.103 eV 1.6 ×10 −19 ×3.103 eV
−1
0.9375 ×10 16 eVs
n= = 0.30212 ×10 16 s −1.
3.103 eV
0.10 percent of photons
0.10 ×0.302 ×10 16 −1
= s . = 3.02 ×10 12 sec −1 .
100
photoelect ric current in the cell =3.02 ×10 12 sec −1×1.6 ×10 −19 C
= 0.483 ×10 −6 Amp
= 0.483 µA.
Numerical Questions related to photo electric effect
Q Light from the sun arrives at the earth , an average of 1.5 x 1011 m away, at the rate of
1.4 x 103 W/m2 of area perpendicular to the direction of light. Assume that sun light is
monochromatic with a frequency of 5.0 x 1014 Hz, how many photons fall per second
on each square meter of the earth surface directly facing the sun?
Hint:
E = nhν = Pt
1.4 × 103
n= − 34
= 0 .0422× 1023
= 4. 2 × 1021
photons/ sec.
6.62 × 10 × 5.0 × 1014
COMPTON SCATTERING (cont)
Classical picture: oscillating electromagnetic field causes oscillations in positions of
charged particles, which re-radiate in all directions at same frequency and wavelength as
incident radiation.
Change in wavelength of scattered light is completely unexpected classically
Electron at Experiment:
rest Outgoing photon
has longer
wavelength λ ′
Incoming photon has
momentum, p, and
wavelength λ Recoil electron
carries some
hc h momentum and
E = hv =
λ
p= KE
λ
Momentum of a
Energy of a photon
photon
COMPTON SC
pν
pν ′
pe
Before
hν + me c2 = hν ′ + ( pe2 c2 + me2 c4 )
1/ 2 hˆ
pν = i = pν ′ + p e
λ
h
λ′ − λ = ( 1 − cos θ )
me c
Incoming photon
= λc ( 1 − cos θ ) ≥ 0
h
λc = Compton wavelength = = 2.4 ×10 −12m
mec
Numerical Questions related to Compton effect
Hint:
h
λ′ − λ = ( 1 − cos θ )
me c
= λc ( 1 − cos θ ) ≥ 0
The nature of light…….
h
Radiation
λ=
p
Matter
E = hν
E = hν SUMMAR
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2c 4
Relation between
λν
E = pc p c=
h hν
p= =
λ c
Energy and frequency
E = ω p = k ω = 2πν k =
2π
=
h
λ 2π
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY OF LIGHT
In 1924 Einstein wrote:- “ There are therefore now two
theories of light, both indispensable, and … without any
logical connection.”
1. It decreases h h
p= ⇒ λ=
2. It stays the λ p
same
3. It increases Speed, v, KE=mv2/2,
and momentum,
p=mv, increase.
Activity:
Photon A has twice as much momentum as Photon B.
Compare their energies.
21% • EA = EB hc h
E = and λ = so E = cp
47% • EA = 2 λ p
33% EB
double p then double E
• EAA =
Electron 4 twice as much momentum as Electron
has
EB
B. Compare their energies.
22% • EA = EB 1 2 p2
KE = mv =
2 2m
40% • EA = 2
38% EB double p then quadruple E
MATTER WAVES
Vg
v
Wave Envelope
Wave Envelope
The blue line represents the envelope
function
This envelope can travel through space with
a different speed than the individual waves
Wave packet, phase velocity and
group velocity
____________________________
The spread of wave packet
in wavelength depends on
the required degree of
localization in space – the
central wavelength is given
h
by λ=
p
What is the velocity of the
wave packet?
Wave packet, phase velocity and
group velocity
________________________________
The velocities of the individual waves which
superpose to produce the wave packet representing
the particle are different - the wave packet as a
whole has a different velocity from the waves that
comprise it
Phase velocity: The rate at which the phase of the
wave propagates in space
Group velocity: The rate at which the envelope of
the wave packet propagates
Speeds Associated with Wave
Packet
Speeds Associated with Wave Packet
The phase speed of a wave in a wave packet is given
by
v phase = ω
k
This is the rate of advance of a crest on a single wave
The group speed is given by
v g = dω
dk
This is the speed of the wave packet itself
Wave packet, phase velocity and
group velocity
________________________________
c2
Phase velocity vp =
v
Group velocity
vg = v
Here is the velocity of
c
light and v is the
velocity of the particle
Numerical questions related to de
Broglie waves
Q An electron and proton have same velocity. Compare the wavelengths,
phase velocities and group velocities.
Hint:
electron = v = proton
λ = h/p
Numerical questions related to de
Broglie waves
Q Find the de Broglie wavelength λ of a 1.0 mg grain blown by wind at a
speed 20 m / sec.
Hint:
λ = h / m v = h (1-v2/c2)1/2 / m0 v
Numerical questions related to de
Broglie waves
Q. 2
Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron, whose speed is
(a) 1 x 108 m/sec (b) 2 x 108 m/sec.
Hint:
λ = h / m v = h (1-v2/c2)1/2/ m0 v
Numerical questions related to de Broglie waves
Q1. A photon and particle have the same de Borglie wavelength. Can
anything be said how their linear momentum compare.
Wave packet
Δx
Acc to Heisenberg “The product of uncertainty in position of a
particle in certain direction and the component of linear
momentum of particle in same direction can never be less than
ħ/2 or h/4π”
i. e. Δx. Δpx ≥ ħ/2
THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
The narrower is the wave packet more precisely the position of the
particle can be determined, however the wavelength in the narrow
packet can not be well defined, as there are not enough wavelengths to
measure λ accurately. This means that as p=h/λ can not be determined
accurately and vice -versa.
As now actual linear momentum p can not be less than Δp (uncertainty in LM) so p ~ Δp
Therefore, minimum energy possessed by the electron if it is to stay with in the nucleus is E = p2/2m 96.4 MeV
Thus, to remain in side the nucleus the minimum energy of the electron should be 96.4 MeV, but it has been
found experimentally that no electron can possess energy more than 5 MeV. Thus electron can not exist with
in the nucleus.
Numerical-THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE (Applications)
Now as we know
that Δpx = me Δve , implies that Δve = 0.058 x 106 m/sec
∆ν 32
Transitions between en ν 32
Wave Function
The wave function must also be normalized so that the probability of the
particle being somewhere on the x axis is 1.
Wave Function
The probabilistic interpretation of the wave function The wave function
is often complex-valued
The wave function contains within it all the information that can be
known about the particle was first suggested by Max Born
2/2
Q Find the value of normalization constant A for the wave function ψ = Axe − x
Hint: Probability of finding the particle equal to 1. square of the wave function
should be equal to 1.
x 2
−x 2 / 2
∫ Axe dx = 1
0
Q2 The wave function of a particle is
(a) Find the value of A ψ = A cos 2 x for − π / 2 ≤ x ≤ π / 2
(b) Find the probability that the particle be found between x=0 and x= π / 4
HINT: (a) for the calculation of A apply normalization condition on the wave function
(b) After substituting the value of A in the wave function find the probability by
integrating with in the limits 0 to Pi/2
Expectation Values
ψ is not a measurable quantity
Measurable quantities of a particle can be derived from ψ
The average position is called the expectation value of x and is defined as
The expectation value of any function g(x) for a normalized wave function:
Abbreviated Notation: ‹ψ *| g |ψ ›
Operators
Expectation Values
Momentum:
Energy:
Expectation value
the expectation value of momentum involves the representation of momentum
as a quantum mechanical operator.
Where
Q Find the expectation value for the position x of a particle in a box L wide
assuming it in the ground state.
nπx
L
2
< x > = ∫ xψ 2 dx , whereψ = sin
0
L L
L
Schrodinger’s Time dependent equation
i
− ( Et − px )
ψ = Ae
Substitute: h2 ∂2 ∂
− [ψ( x +
)T ( t ) ] ψ
V ( x=) ( x t ) i h [ ( x )T (t ) ]
)T (ψ
2m ∂x 2 ∂ t
∂2 d 2ψ
2 [
ψ( x)T (t )] =T (t ) 2 etc
∂x dx
N.B. Total not partial
h2 d 2ψ dT derivatives now
− T +2 V (=x)ψT ψ
ih
2m dx dt
Eigenvalues and
Eigenfunctions
The values of energy for which the steady state Schrodinder equation can
be solved are called eigen values and the corresponding solutions (wave
functions) are called as eigen functions.
These words are derived from German words;
EIGEN WERT and EIGEN FUNKTION
eigen means proper or characteristic and wert means value.
To obtain specific values for physical parameters, for example energy, you
operate on the wave function with the quantum mechanical operator
associated with that parameter
Eigen function and eigen value:
Εn ψn
Ε3 ψ3
Ε2
ψ2
Ε1 ψ1
Numerical problems related to Eigen values and eigen
function
Hint:
2 nπx n 2π 2 2
ψn = sin and En =
L L 2mL2
SUMMARY
P ( x, t ) dx = Ψ( x, t ) dx ( x=, t) Ψ ( x, t) dx Ψ
2 *
+ ∞ + ∞
dx P ( x, t ) = ∫( xΨ, t )
2
h2 d 2ψ
−
2m dx 2
V ( x+)ψ ( x) E ( x)ψ = Ψ ( x, t ) ψ (=x )T (t ) ( x )eψ− iEt
= /h
Conditions on wavefunction
single-valued, continuous, normalizable,
continuous first derivative
Particle in box:
Particle in a Box
Particle in a Box
A particle is confined to a one-
dimensional region of space
nπx
ψ(x ) = A sin
L
The Particle in a Box
and
nπ 2 2 2
En = 2
2m
Numerical questions related to Particle in a box:
ψ ( x) = { 3 x ;0 < x < 1
0 ; Elsewhere
Find the probability that the particle can be found in int erval ( 0,1 / 2)
Ans : 1 / 8
Numerical questions related to Particle in a box:
Q Think the nucleus as a box with the size of 10-14 m across. Compute the
lowest energy of a neutron confined in the nucleus.
Hint:
considering the nucleus as a cubical box of size 10-14 m.
so that x = y = z = 10-14 m
π nx
2 2 2
n y
2
n
2
En = 2 + 2 + z2
2m x y z
here x = y = z = = 10 −14 m
and nx = n y = nz = 1
Numerical questions related to Particle in a box:
Q Show that wave functions for two different states are ortho-normal for a
particle in a one dimensional box.