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Fluids
Engineering

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics*

Wilson Lawrence

AFD

EFD

CFD

U 0
DU
1 2
p
U ui u j
Dt
Re

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Fluids
Engineering
Fluid Element Under Shear Force

What is a fluid ?

A fluid is any substance which deforms

continuously under a shearing stress
Includes liquids and gasses
Classified as Newtonian or Non-Newtonian
Water and most gasses are Newtonian
Whole blood, toothpaste, etc.,

Newton law of Viscosity

dU

Pseudo-plastic
Shear thinning
Plastic

Newtonian

Shear-thickening

dy

Ideal fluid
Rate of shear, dU/dy

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Fluids
Engineering

What are some fluid properties?

Density if this remains constant in a flow, the fluid is incompressible (ratio of mass by Volume)
Viscosity a measure of resistance to flow
varies with temperature for Newtonian fluids
varies with local flow conditions (strain and shear) for non-Newtonian

What are some properties of the flow itself ?

Laminar, transitional, or turbulent

Compressible or incompressible
Subsonic, supersonic, hypersonic
Reacting or non-reacting
Single-phase or multi-phase

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Faces of Fluid
Mechanics

Archimedes
(C. 287-212 BC)

Navier
(1785-1836)

Newton
(1642-1727)

Stokes
(1819-1903)

Leibniz
(1646-1716)

Reynolds
(1842-1912)

Bernoulli
(1667-1748)

Euler
(1707-1783)

Prandtl
(1875-1953)

Taylor
(1886-1975)

Engineers have different kinds of tools available for solving fluids engineering systems
Analytical Fluid Dynamics (AFD) Simplification of the governing equation
Experimental Fluid Dynamics (EFD) Experiments of scale models
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Discritize governing eq and solve by computers
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Analytical Fluid
Mechanics

The theory of mathematical physics problem formulation

Control volume & differential analysis
Exact solutions only exist for simple geometry and conditions
Approximate solutions for practical applications

Linear

Empirical relations using EFD data

Example: laminar pipe flow
UD
Re

2000
Assumptions: Fully developed, Low

Example: Moody Diagram for Turbulent Pipe flow

1
f

k D
2.51

1 2
3.7 Re f

2log

Approach: Simplify momentum equation, integrate, apply boundary conditions (no-slip wall) to
determine integration constants and use energy equation to calculate head loss
0

2
2
u
u

gx
2
2
Dt
x
y
x

Du

Exact solution :
Friction factor:
Head loss:

u(r) 1 ( p)(R2 r 2)
4 x
8 du

f 8 w dy w 64
V 2 V 2 Re

p1
p
z1 2 z2 h f

L V 2 32 LV
hf f

D 2g
D2
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Experimental Fluid
Mechanics
Definition:
Use of experimental methodology and procedures for solving fluids engineering systems, including
full and model scales, large and table top facilities, measurement systems (instrumentation, data
acquisition and data reduction), uncertainty analysis, and dimensional analysis and similarity.
EFD philosophy:

Decisions on conducting experiments are governed by the ability of the expected test outcome, to
achieve the test objectives within allowable uncertainties.

Integration of all test phases should be a key part of entire experimental program
test design
determination of error sources
estimation of uncertainty
documentation of the results
Purpose:
Science & Technology: understand and investigate a phenomenon/process, substantiate and
validate a theory (hypothesis)
Research & Development: document a process/system, provide benchmark data (standard procedures,
validations), calibrate instruments, equipment, and facilities
Industry: design optimization and analysis, provide data for direct use, product liability, and acceptance
Teaching: demonstration

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Applications of
EFD
Science & Technology

Industrial Application

3D Vortex Shedding after Cylinder

Research & Development

Fluid Flow across Porous Media

Teaching
Fluid Mechanics Lab

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Experimental Test
Facility
Fluid flow and Heat transfer in Porous
Media
20W

13

14
v

10

T p

7
5

12

11

8888

12

6
1

2
3

1: Reciprocating Compressor, 2: Moisture Filter, 3: Desiccant Dryer, 4: Dust Filter, 5: Pressure Regulator, 6: By Pass, 7: Orifice Plate, 8: Micro Manometers, 9: Test - Section, 10: Traversing Arrangement, 11: Data Acquisition
System, 12: Computer, 13: Temperature Indicator Panel, 14: DC Power Supply

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Measurement
System

Instrumentation

Load cell to measure forces and moments

Pressure transducers

Pitot tubes

Hotwire anemometry

PIV, LDV

Data acquisition

Serial port devices

Desktop PCs

Plug-in data acquisition boards

DA software - Labview

Data analysis and data reduction

Data reduction equations

Fast Fourier Transform

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Instrumentatio
n

Pitot tube

Differential Pressure Transducer

Hotwire

3D - PIV
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Instrumentation(con
td)
Velocity Thermistor 10X

Calibration certificate

Transverse Arrangement

Exit Thermocouples

Bulk
T
b

Temperature

5mm

Adiabatic
Wall

1
u A
m c

TudA
c

10mm

10mm

10mm

10mm

5mm

35.0C

34.4C

34.4C

35.1C

39.4C

2.98m/s

1.19m/s

1.38m/s

1.19m/s

0.97m/s

36.5C
1.20m/s

35.5C
1.41m/s

35.4C
1.62m/s

35.7C
1.41m/s

37.4C
1.20m/s

38.6C
1.09m/s

37.0C
1.24m/s

36.8C
1.34m/s

37.3C
1.24m/s

39.0C
1.09m/s

40.0C

38.4C

38.3C

38.8C

40.2C

0.95m/s

1.20m/s

1.36m/s

1.20m/s

0.95m/s

Adiabatic
Wall

Bottom Wall Heated [Q 20W]

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Data Acquisition
system
Agilent 34970A Bench
Link Data Logger

Parameters Connected to Data Logger

9 + 9 Thermocouples top and bottom wall

Flow rate orifice plate, PD is to DPT, gives 4 to 20 mA
Inlet & Exit Temperature 2nos at inlet and 4nos at exit
Voltage Input through DC power supply
(All the above parameters are converted to current and
voltage signals and connected to Data Logger)

Labview Data Software Digital O/P

Temperature Indicator
Wattmeter

RTD Indicator

Thermo couple
Indicator

Temperature
Controller

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Uncertainty
Analysis
Rigorous methodology for uncertainty assessment using statistical
and engineering concepts
E LE M EN TA L
ERRO R SO UR CES

IN D IV ID U A L
M EASUREM ENT
SYSTEM S

X
1
B , P

X
2
B , P

X
J
B , P

M EASUREM ENT
O F IN D IV ID U A L
V A R IA B L E S

r = r ( X , X ,......, X )
1

r
B , P
r

D A T A R E D U C T IO N
E Q U A T IO N

E X P E R IM E N T A L
R E S U LT

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EFD
Process

EFD process is the steps to set up an experiment and take data

1. Setup facility
2. Install model
3. Setup equipment
4. Setup Data Acquisition using Lab View
5. Perform calibrations
6. Data Analysis and Data Reduction
7. Uncertainty Analysis
8. Comparison with CFD results
9. Documentation and Reporting
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EFD
Process

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Learn about
CFD

In the past, two approaches in science:

- Theoretical/Anlaytical
- Experimental
- Computer
Numerical simulation
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

Expensive experiments are being replaced by numerical simulations :

- cheaper and faster
- simulation of phenomena that can not be experimentally
reproduced (weather, ocean, ...)

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Learn about
CFD

What is Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) ?

Computational having to do with Mathematics, Computing
Fluid Dynamics dynamics of things that flow.
copyrighted by Adam Hart-Davis

What CFD can do for you?

Fundamental understanding
Virtual prototype, increase speed to market, reduce
testing costs
Problem solving
Increase Knowledge Base at low cost

Using CFD, we can build a computational model that represents a system or device that you want
to study - then you apply the fluid flow physics and chemistry to this virtual prototype, and the
software will output a prediction of the fluid dynamics and related physical phenomena.
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Learn about
CFD

Benefits of CFD:
Three compelling reasons to used CFD is
In-sight

Fore-sight

Efficiency

Food Refrigeration is Immense

Annual investment in refrigerating equipment: US$170
Annual refrigerated foodstuffs: US$1200 billion
(3.5 times USA military budget)

700 1000 million household refrigerators

300 000 000m3 of cold storage facilities

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Learn about
CFD

Applications of CFD:

Aerospace

Aerospace
Automotive
Biomedical
Chemical Processing
HVAC
Hydraulics
Power Generation
Sports
Marine

Biomedicine

Automotive

Temperature and natural

convection currents in the eye
following laser heating.
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Learn about
CFD
Flow Processing

Applications of CFD:

Aerospacee
Automotive
Biomedical
Flow Processing
HVAC(Heat Ventilation Air
Condition)
Hydraulics
Power Generation
Sports
Marine

prediction of flow separation and Drag effects

Hydraulics

HVAC
Streamlines for workstation
ventilation

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Physics of Fluid:

Ns
3 ( Poise)
m

Fluid = Liquid + Gas

Density
Viscosity :
resistance to flow of a fluid
Substance
Density (kg/m3)
Viscosity (P)

const

incompressible

variable

compressible

Air(18C)

Water(20C)

Honey(20C)

1.275

1000

1446

1.82e-4

1.002e-2

190

CFD by numbers:
1.

Identify Physics & Chemistry of

Problem

2.

Identify the Geometry Domain

3.

Formulate the Mathematical Statement

Discretize Equations & Geometry

4.

Develop or Choose the Algorithm

6.
7.
8.
9.

Develop or Select Software

Choose Computing Hardware
Compute the Solution
Analyze & Interpret Results
a)
Storage and Manipulate Large Data Sets
b)
Post Processing and Visualization
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Physical Significance/Identify
the Geometry Domain

Identification of Physics of Problem:

Physical principles related to the problem

Statement of physical principles in mathematical form
Reduction of complexity to make amenable to
computation
Identification of auxiliary relations (turbulence model,
non-Newtonian effects, property variations, etc.)

Geometry Domain:

Isolate a piece of the complete physical system

Computational Domain

Data by measurement, digitized scans, etc

Boundary Condition of Physics
Generate bounding surfaces (sets of cross sections, algebraic models,
etc)

Is a 2D or axis symmetric approximation feasible?

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Discretizatio
n
Discretization - method to approximate the differential equations by a system of algebraic
equations which can be solved on a computer

Finite Difference Method

1. Introduced by Euler in the 18th century.
2. Governing equations in differential form domain with grid replacing the partial
derivatives by approximations in terms of node values of the functions one algebraic
equation per grid node linear algebraic equation system.
3. Applied to structured grids
Finite Volume Method
1. Governing equations in integral form solution domain is subdivided into a finite number of
contiguous control volumes conservation equation applied to each CV.
2. Computational node locates at the centroid of each CV.
3. Applied to any type of grids, especially complex geometries
4. Compared to FD, FV with methods higher than 2nd order will be difficult, especially for 3D.
Finite Element Method
1. Similar to FV
2. Equations are multiplied by a weight function before integrated over the entire domain.

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Gri
d

Divide the problem domain into a very large number of

very small regions using a GRID

Replace the classical differential equations with sets of

finite difference or finite volume equations

Structured Grids
all nodes have the same
number of elements around it
it is only for simple domains

Tri/Tet vs. Quad/Hex Meshes

1.

For simple geometries, quad/hex meshes

can provide higher quality solutions with
fewer cells than a comparable tir/tet mesh.
Align the gridlines with the flow in

2.

For complex geometries, quad/hex meshed

show no numerical advantage, and you can
save meshing effort by using tir/tet mesh.

Un - Structured Grids

Block Structured Grids

Typical CFD Mesh

3D mesh fighter aircraft

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Discretization of
Mathematics
Infinitesimal Fluid Volume

Mathematical Description for flows:

Continuity:
Momentum ( Navier Stokes):
Energy:

Consistency
Truncation error : difference between discrete eq and exact one

Truncation error becomes zero when the mesh is refined.

Method order n if the truncation error is proportional to
(x) nor (t) n

Stability

Convergence

Discrete solution tends to the exact one as the grid

spacing tends to zero.
Lax equivalence theorem (for linear problems):
Consistency + Stability = Convergence

Errors are not magnified

Bounded numerical solution

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Direct methods

Iterative methods

Gauss elimination
LU decomposition
Tridiagonal Matrix Algorithm (TDMA)
- number of operations for a NN system is
- time and storage space acceptable

Algorith
m

Jacobi method
Gauss-Seidel method
Successive Over-Relaxation (SOR)
Conjugate Gradient Method (CG)
Multigrid methods
- repeated application of a simple algorithm
- only non-zero coefficients need to be stored

Why use iterative methods?

1. in CFD, the cost of direct methods is too high since the triangular factors of sparse
matrices are not sparse.
2. Discretization error is larger than the accuracy of the computer arithmetic
Purpose of iteration methods: drive both the residual and iterative error to be zero
Rapid convergence of an iterative method is key to its effectiveness.

A Q

n n

A n Q n

A n n
n Approximate solution after n iteration

n Iteration error

n residual
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Typical CFD
Project

3m

Le
Dh

0.05Re D
h

Umax = 0.12 m/sec

Le = 2.1 m

Velocity Profile before and after Porous

Insert

Porous
Zone

Duct Inlet
Duct Outlet
Porous Insert Inlet
Porous Insert
Outlet

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Typical CFD
Project

Stainless steel Mesh

= 0.57 and wire dia. = 0 .4mm

Separate hydraulic
Exp. To determine
45 mm
10 mm

K&C

test section
10 mm

10 mm

30 mm

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Experiments compared with

Computation
Graph shows the comparsion of experimental work with
fluent having the inlet velocity profile as plug flow.

7000

Dh

0.05Re D
h

Umax = 0.12 m/sec

6000

Pressure drop (pa/m)

Le

5000
4000
3000
Exp plug f low
Num plug f low

2000
1000

Le = 2.1 m

0
0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

average Velocity (m/sec)

C27 Brake Housing*

Crack initiated in fatigue on the outside of the body along the edge of the letter A

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Typical CFD
Project

1.

2.

3.

4.

Formulate the Basics Assumptions

Compressible/Incompressible Fluid (Mach Number)

Viscous/Inviscid Fluid (Reynolds Number)

Define the Physical and Computational Domain

Geometric Definition

Grid generation (coarse, medium and fine meshes)

Boundary Condition set-up

Choose a Solution Strategy

Space/Time Discretization scheme

Set-up Simulation Monitors

Analyze the results

Evaluate the convergence

Evaluate grid dependence

Post process data of interest

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Typical CFD
Project
Geometry

Physics

Mesh

Solve

Reports

PostProcessing

Select
Geometry

Heat Transfer
ON/OFF

Unstructured
(automatic/
manual)

Steady/
Unsteady

Forces Report

Contours

Structured
(automatic/
manual)

Iterations/
Steps

XY Plot

Vectors

Flow
properties

Convergent
Limit

Verification

Streamlines

Viscous Model

Precisions
(single/
double)

Validation

Boundary
Conditions

Numerical
Scheme

Geometry
Parameters

Domain Shape
and Size

Compressible
ON/OFF

(lift/drag, shear
stress, etc)

Initial
Conditions

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Commercial Software
Tools

Solid Works

Cubit

CFX

Techplot

Pro E

ICEM-CFD

Phoenix

MAT-LAB

AutoCAD

Grid Pro

StarCD

Fieldview

Gambit
Geometry
Modeler

Grid
Generator

Pre-processing

Fluent
Flow
Solver

Flow
Analysis
Post-processing
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Recommended Texts

CENGEL & TURNER

DOUGLAS (4th Edition)

SEE ALSO ...

www.thegoonshow.co.uk
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