Vapour Power Cycle

Suresh Kumar Y
Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering

Topics

Carnot cycle

Rankine cycle

Actual Rankine cycle

Parameters affecting cycle efficiency

Rankine cycle with re-heating

Regenerative cycle

Dual cycle (binary vapour cycle).

Carnot cycle (for gases)


Carnot efficiency =

T4 is the source temperature and T1 is the

sink temperature.

Increasing the source temperature or

decreasing sink temperature will increase
Carnot efficiency.

Carnot cycle (for steam)

Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression process

from P1 to P2 in the pump or a compressor.

Process 2-3: Reversible isothermal heat addition process

at constant temperature TH and pressure P2 in a boiler,
steam generator, nuclear reactor.

Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion process from

P3 to P4 in a steam turbine or steam engine.

Process 4-1: Reversible isothermal heat rejection process

at constant temperature TL and pressure P1 in a steam
condenser such that the wet vapour at 4 is cooled to state-1
followed by a compression so that the wet vapour will return
to its original state-2 and the cycle repeats.

TH and TL are the source and the sink temperatures.

A theoretical cycle (all reversible process) is

having the maximum efficiency.
The practical cycle for the steam power plant is
the Rankine cycle.
It is difficult to device a system which can
receive
and
reject
heat
at
constant
temperature. A wet vapour is the only working
fluid which can do this conveniently.

Process 1-2: Water from the condenser at low pressure is

pumped into the boiler at high pressure. This process is reversible
adiabatic.
Process 2-3: Water is converted into steam at constant pressure
by the addition of heat in the boiler.
Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion of steam in the
steam turbine.
Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser to
convert condensate into water.

Deviations from the Carnot

cycle

Cycle 1-2-3-4: Simple Rankine cycle with saturated steam

expanding in the turbine.

Cycle 1-2-31-41: Simple Rankine cycle with wet steam

expanding in the turbine.

Cycle 1-2-311-411: Simple Rankine cycle with super-heated

steam expanding in the turbine.

Cycle 11 -21 -3-4: Carnot cycle with steam.

Modified Rankine cycle is used as the thermodynamics

cycle for the vapour power cycle.

Mean Temperature of Heat

Addition

If Tm is the mean temperature of heat

addition as shown in the above figure, so
that the area under curve 2-3 is equal to
area under curve 5-6, then heat added.

QH= H.A = (h3 - h2) = Tm (s3 - s2)

If QL= heat rejected = (h4 - h1 ) = Tmin (s4 - s1

) = Tmin (s3 - s2)

Capacity of Steam Power

Plant
Steam rate: or Specific steam consumption: It is defined as

the rate of steam consumption (kg/hr) required for producing

unit shaft output (1 kW), therefore,

Steam rate = mass flow rate of steam in kg/h required to

develop 1kW of power

(kg/kWh)

If P is the power developed in kW, wnet is the net work done per
kg of working substance, msis the mass flow rate of steam in
kg/h
then SSC = ms/P
where, Power developed = P = mswnet/3600 kW or
SSC =
3600/wnet kg/kWh

Analysis of the ideal cycle

Change in K.E. and P.E. from one point in

the cycle to another point are neglected.

Steady Flow Energy Equation:

Rankine cycle efficiency or thermal

efficiency of the cycle = net work done in
the cycle/heat supplied in the cycle =

Work ratio = ratio of net work output of the

plant to that of the turbine work.

Pump input

or
or

Pump input wp= = v(P1 P2) where P1 is the

boiler pressure and P2 is the condenser
pressure and v is the specific volume of
saturated liquid at condenser pressure P2.

Effect of Varying the Operating

Conditions on the Efficiency of the
Simple Rankine Cycle
(a) Effect of Superheat:
Cycle
1-2-3-4-1
using
dry
saturated steam at the exit of the
boiler
Cycle
1-2-3-4-1
using
superheated steam at the exit of
the boiler.
Area 4-3-31-41 extra work output
from the cycle because of super
heating.

Area B-3-31-C extra heat added to the cycle.

Thermal efficiency of the cycle increases.
Quality of the steam leaving the turbine improves.
The average temperature of heat addition increases.

(b) Effect of Maximum Pressure (boiler

pressure):
Here the maximum temperature
of steam and the condenser
pressure are held constant.
Area 4-C-B-41 the net reduction in
the heat rejection due to increase
in the boiler pressure.
The net work increases by the
amount horizontal hatched area
and decreases by the amount of
the vertical hatched area.
These two areas are approximately equal. Net work tends to remain
the same. But heat rejected decreases.
Cycle efficiency increases.
Quality of steam leaving the turbine decreases.
The average temperature at which heat is supplied increases.

(c) Effect of Condenser Pressure:

The net work is increased by the area 1-4-41-11-21-2.

Heat added to the boiler is increased by the area A-21-2-B.
These two areas are approximately equal.
The thermal efficiency increases.
Quality of steam decreases at the exit of the turbine.
The temperature at which the heat is rejected decreases.

Deviations of the actual cycle

from the ideal cycle

The actual vapour power cycle differs from the ideal

Rankine cycle because of irreversibility in various
components.
Fluid friction and undesired heat loss to the
surroundings are the most common sources of
irreversibility (piping losses frictional losses+heat
transfer to the surrounding).
There are pressure drops in the boiler and the
condenser because of the friction.
Irreversibility within the pump and the turbine also play
important role in this deviation. A pump requires a
greater work input and a turbine produces a smaller
work output as a result of irreversibility.

The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from

the isentropic ones can be accounted for by
using adiabatic efficiencies as described below:
Efficiency of pump:
P = (h2s h1) / (h2 h1) (isentropic work input/
actual work input)
Efficiency of turbine:
T = (h3 h4) / (h3 h4s) (actual work output/
isentropic work output)

Condenser losses:
Cooling of condensate
below saturation
temperature of water
leaving the condenser.

Reheat cycle
Efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be
increased by increasing the pressure of the
steam entering the turbine.
This increases the moisture content of
steam in the low pressure end of the
turbine.
In the reheat cycle the advantage of the
increased efficiency with high boiler
pressure is incorporated and yet avoid
excessive moisture content in the low
pressure stage of the turbine.

Process 1-2, isentropic compression of water from

condenser pressure to boiler pressure.
Process 2-3, constant pressure heat addition in the
boiler.
Process 3-4, first stage expansion in high pressure
turbine.
Process 4-5, constant pressure heat addition in the
reheater.
Process 5-6, second stage expansion in low pressure
turbine.
Process 6-1, constant pressure condensation of steam
in the condenser.
The unique feature of this cycle is that steam is
expanded to some intermediate pressure Pi in the high
pressure turbine and is then reheated in the boiler
after which it expands in the low pressure turbine to
the condenser pressure.

Total work done by both stages

wT = (h3-h4)+(h5-h6)

Work done by the pump

wP = h2-h1

Heat added in the boiler, qH= h3 h2

Heat added in the reheater = h5 h4

Heat rejected in the condenser = h6 h1

Rankine efficiency =(wT wP)/(h3 h2)+(h5 h4)

Regenerative cycle
In the Rankine cycle without
superheating, the average
temperature of working fluid
is much lower during 2-21
than during the evaporation
process 21-3.

Because of that the Rankine cycle efficiency is less

than that of the corresponding Carnot cycle.
In the regenerative cycle, the working fluid enters
the boiler at some state between 2 and 2 1 and
consequently the average temperature at which
heat supplied is increased. Hence improving the
cycle efficiency.

Idealised regenerative
cycle

Feed water temperature is raised to the

saturation temperature corresponding to boiler
pressure before it enters the boiler.

Here the condensate circulates round the turbine

casing, counter-flow to the direction of the steam
flow in the turbine, resulting in the heat transfer
from the vapour to the liquid flowing round the
turbine casing.

The curve 3-4-5 represents the state of vapours

flowing through the turbine and is parallel to the
curve 1-2-21 which represents the pumping
process 1-2 and 2-21, the state of the liquid
flowing round the turbine casing.

The area a-2-21-b representing the heat

transfer to the liquid and area c-4-3-d
representing the heat transfer from the
vapour and are equal to each other.

Thus area 21-3-d-b represents the heat

transfer to the working fluid during the
constant temperature process 21-3.

Area 1-5-c-a represents the heat transfer from

the working fluid during the process 1-5 which
is exactly equal to the area 11-41-d-b, that is
the heat rejected in the related Carnot cycle.

Thus the efficiency of the idealised regenerative cycle is

exactly equal to the efficiency of the Carnot cycle with the
same heat supply and heat rejection temperature.

This cycle is not practical because

It would not be possible to effect the necessary heat
transfer from the vapour flowing inside the turbine to
the feed water circulating round the turbine casing.
The moisture content of the vapour leaving the turbine
is considerably increased as a result of heat transfer.

1.

2.

The practical regenerative cycle involves the extraction of

some of the vapour after it has partially expanded in the
turbine and the use of the feed water heater.

Open Feed water Heaters

Regeneration increases efficiency of vapour

power plant.

It involves raising the temperature of the

liquid leaving the pump (called the feed
water) before it enters the boiler.

This is achieved by extracting steam from

turbine. This steam (which could have
produced more work by expanding further in
the turbine) is used to heat the feed water.

The device where this takes place is called a

regenerator or a feed water heater.

A feed water heater is basically a heat

exchanger where heat is transferred from
the steam to the feed water either by:
Mixing the two fluid streams (Open feed
water heaters), or
Without mixing them (Closed feed water
heaters).

In the cycle:
Steam enters the turbine at the boiler pressure
(state 5) and expands isentropically to state 6.
Here some steam is extracted to the feed
water heater, while rest expands isentropically
to the condenser pressure (state 7).

Steam leaves the condenser as a saturated

liquid at state 1. The condensed water (also
called feed water) enters a pump where it is
isentropically compressed to the feed water
heater pressure (state 2), and is routed to the
feed water heater, where it mixes with the
steam extracted from the turbine.

The fraction of the steam extracted is such

that the mixture leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid at the heater pressure
(state 3).

A second pump raises the pressure of the

water to the boiler pressure (state 4).

Water in the boiler is now heated to the

turbine inlet state (state 5).

Analysis of the cycle

In this case the mass flow rates are different through
different components of the cycle.
For example, if 1 kg of steam leaves the boiler and
expands partially in the turbine to state 6,here m kg of
steam is extracted to the feed water heater and the
remaining (1-m) kg expands to the condenser pressure
state 7.
qh = h5-h4
qL = (1-m) (h7-h1)
wT = (h5-h6) + (1-m) (h6-h7)
wP = (1-m) wP1 + wP2
Energy balance for the feed water heater
m*h6 + (1-m) (h2) = 1*h3
Efficiency = (wT - wP )/ qh

Closed regenerative cycle

Binary vapour cycle

For best performance the
working fluid for vapour power
cycle should have the following
characteristics:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

High critical temperature at relatively low pressure.

Low triple point temperature.
Condenser pressure should be slightly above
atmosphere.
High enthalpy of vaporisation.
Saturation dome that resembles an inverted U.
Easy availability at low costs.

Mercury-water binary vapour

cycle

Combined gas vapour power

cycle

Super saturated flow