NUCLEAR CHANGES

 Either in physical or chemical changes, the atoms forming the

substance keep themselves the same. In the following reaction:
Zn + 2HCl -----> ZnCl2 + H2
 Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid and forms zinc chloride and
hydrogen gas is released. Although molecular formulas are
changing in this equation, zinc still has 30 protons, chlorine has
17 protons and hydrogen has 1 proton in their nuclei. Only the
bonds between the molecules are changing.
 In 1896, Henri Becquerel was working with compounds
containing the element uranium. To his surprise, he found that
photographic plates covered to keep out light became fogged,
or partially exposed, when these uranium compounds were
anywhere near the plates. This fogging suggested that some
kind of ray had passed through the plate coverings. Several
materials other than uranium compounds were also found to
emit these penetrating rays. Materials that emit this kind of
radiation are said to be radioactive and to undergo radioactive
decay.
 In 1899, Ernest Rutherford discovered that uranium
compounds produce three different kinds of radiation.
He separated the radiations according to their penetrating
abilities and named them α alpha, β beta, and y gamma
radiation, after the first three letters of Greek alphabet.
 The α radiation consists of ejection of particles which have an
atomic number of 2 and mass number of 4. Rutherford later
showed that an alpha particle is the nucleus of a Helium atom , or
in other words a Hellium ion. Alpha particles have high ionizing
effect but low penetrating power. They can be stopped by a sheet
of paper. Since they are charged particles they can be deflected
by electric and magnetic fields. Since alpha particles contain
protons and neutrons, they should come from the nucleus. A
change in nucleus means that the element has been changed into
a different element. If an alpha particle is emmisioned, the atomic
number reduces by 2 and the mass number reduces by 4.
 In nuclear reactions, atoms change from one element to
another one. In a nuclear reaction equation, the sum of mass
numbers and the sum of atomic numbers should be equal on
each side of the equation. Examine the following equation:
 23892 U -----> 23490 Th + 42 He

 21084 Po ----> 20682 Pb + 42 He

 The β particles are high speed electrons emitted by the nucleus.
The nucleus does not contain any elctrons. Beta decay is actually
a neutron changes into a proton in the nucleus. An unseen
neutrino, accompanies each β decay. The neutrino has a very
small or no mass and electrically uncharged but it carries
momentum (mass. velocity product for a moving particle) and
energy. Beta particles have a greater penetrating power but a
lower ionizing power than alpha particles. Beta particles can be
stopped by six millimeters of aluminum.
 Since they are charged particles they can be defected by electric
and magnetic fields. The number of protons in the nucleus
changes in beta decay, so the element also changes into another
element. If a beta particle is emissioned, the number of neutrons
is decreased by 1 and the number of protons increase by 1.
Examine the following equations:
 10 n ---> 0-1 e + 1 1 p

 23490 Th ----> 23491 Pa + 0-1 e

 2712 Mg ----> 2713 Al + 0 -1 e
 The y rays are stopped by several millimeters of lead. y rays
are high energy photons. For complex nuclei there are many
different possible ways in which the neutrons and protons can
be arranged within the nucleus. When the shape of the
nucleus undergoes a change the nucleus may emit a y ray in
the reaction.
152 Dy* -----> 152 Dy + y
 Alpha particles and y rays are emitted with a specific energy
that depends on the radioactive isotope. Beta particles,
however, are emitted with a continuous range of energies
from zero up to the maximum allowed for by the particular
isotope.
 Other than α, ß and y emissions a nucleus may have some
other emissions such as:
 The positron emission consists of the ejection of a
positive electron. A positron has the same mass as an electron
but a positive charge instead of a negative charge. It arises
from the conversion of a proton into a neutron.
12 Mg ----> 11 Al + 1 e
23 23 0

122
53 I ----> 122 52 Te + 0 1 e
 The neutron emission is a nuclear reaction which forms
an isotope of parent nucleus.
36 Kr ---> 36 Kr + 0 n
87 86 1
 Nuclear fission is when atoms split apart into smaller atoms. It
gives off a lot of energy, and is used in nuclear
weapons and nuclear reactors. This process was discovered in
December 1938 by the German nuclear chemist Otto Hahn and
his assistant Fritz Strassmann in Berlin.
 Certain types of the elements including uranium and plutonium
can be made to fission. While all atoms are small, atoms of
uranium If a very large nucleus is hit by a neutron, it will
sometimes become unstable and break into two pieces. When the
nucleus breaks apart (or fissions) it releases a lot of energy and it
also causes some more neutrons to be released. If those neutrons
then hit other atoms, they will make the other atoms split. This
can happen again and again.
 Simple diagram of nuclear fission. In the first frame, a neutron is about to
collide with the nucleus of a U-235 atom. In the second frame, the neutron has
been absorbed and briefly turned the nucleus into an unstable U-236 atom. In
the third frame, the U-236 atom has fissioned, resulting in two fission fragments
(Ba-141 and Kr-92), three neutrons, and the release of a relatively large amount
of binding energy.
 This is called a nuclear chain-reaction, and it can release huge amounts of
energy very quickly. The amount of energy released by a nuclear chain
reaction is measured in kilotons. One kiloton is the same as the explosive
force of one thousand tons of TNT (trinitrotoluene).
 In a nuclear bomb, this must happen very quickly to make a very big
explosion. In a nuclear reactor, this must happen very slowly to create heat.
In a reactor, the heat created by the uranium or plutonium atoms when they
fission (or break apart) boils water into steam. This can be used to power a
generator to create electricity.
 Nuclear Fusion is a nuclear process in which two light nuclei combine to
form a single heavier nucleus. Extremely high energies are needed to fuse
nuclei together. This energy is needed to overcome the electrical repulsion
between two positively charged nuclei so that they are close enough to
have the strong nuclear force binding the nuclei. Although the nucleus that
is made by fusion is heavier than either of the starting nuclei, it is not as
heavy as the combined original mass of the starting nuclei (atoms). This
lost mass is changed into lots of energy, as said
by Einstein's famous E=mc2 equation. The stars have a high density and
temperature. This increases the probability of the nucleons fusing in the
star.
 Fusion happens in the middle of stars like
the Sun where hydrogen and helium are fused together,
releasing the energy which powers the heat and light of the
star. All life on Earth exists because the light generated by the
Sun is used by plants to produce food and also it warms our
planet. Therefore, fusion is the basis for our life.
 Lighter elements fuse to form heavier elements. Hydrogen
isotopes collide in a star and fuse to form helium nucleus. These
reactions continue until the nucleus reaches the iron nucleus
(mass around sixty). Iron is the nucleus with the highest binding
energy. When a nucleus reaches mass around sixty, no more
fusion occurs in the star. Producing larger nuclei is energetically
unfavorable. When a star has converted a large fraction of its
core's mass to iron, it has almost reached the end of its life.
 Scientists on Earth have been able to produce fusion reactions
for only about the last sixty years. At first, there were small
scale studies in which only a few fusion reactions actually
occurred. However, these first experiments later lead to the
development of thermonuclear fusion weapons (hydrogen
bombs). More peaceful uses of fusion are being researched
today with the hope that soon we will be able to control fusion
reactions to generate clean, inexpensive power.