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BAHAN KAJIAN

MK. PERENCANAAN LINGKUNGAN

INDEKS KUALITAS
LINGKUNGAN
Disajikan:
Prof Dr Ir Soemarno MS
PMPSLP PPSUB Agustus 2010

DEFINITION AND BOUNDING


Alam bidang Lingkungan:
Penentuan apakah suatu masalah lingkungan akan menjadi
lebih baik atau menjadi lebih buruk ; maka INDEKS
memegang peranan komunikasi yang sangat penting

INDEKS atau INDIKATOR : Sarana yang disarakna untuk


mereduksi banyak data dan informasi hingga menjadi bentuk
yang paling sederhana , namun makna esensinya masih tetap
ada.

INDEKS Untuk menyederhanakan

PERANAN INDEKS
Dalam Proses Pemantauan Lingkungan diperlukan dan
digunakan DATA dan INFORMASI
Data dan Informasi ini harus dapat diterjemahkan
menjadi bentuk yang mudah dipahami maknanya
Dalam proses penyederhanaan DATA dan INFORMASI
inilah diperlukan konsep tentang INDEKS
LINGKUNGAN
.

INDEKS LINGKUNGAN dapat dipakai untuk:


1. Melukiskan trend / kecenderungan kualitas lingkungan
2. Menegaskan adanya kondisi dan masalah lingkungan yang
signifikan
3. Proses penggunaan data teknis dalam pengambilan
keputusan oleh POLICY MAKER
.

PENTINGNYA INDEKS LINGKUNGAN


Empat peranan penting Indeks Lingkungan:
1. Membantu dalam perumusan kebijakan
2. Sarana untuk mengevaluasi efektivitas program
lingkungan
3. Membantu dalam mendisain program lingkungan
4. Mempermudah komunikasi dengan publik sehubungan
dengan kondisi lingkungan
Enam macam penggunaan Indeks Lingkungan:
1. Alokasi sumberdaya
2. Penyusunan urutan/ peringkat lokasional
3. Pengam,anan baku mutu
4. Trend analysis
5. Informasi publik
6. Kajian-kajian ilmiah

BAHASA INDEKS
Dalam Konteks Matematika: VARIABEL, nilainya beragam
Dalam Profesi Lingkungan:
PARAMETER = Environmental variable,
menyatakan kualitas lingkungan yang diukur

Variabel Polutan: Kuantitas fisik, KImia atau biologi yang


dimaksudkan sebagai ukuran pencemaran lingkungan
Misalnya: Konsentrasi SO2 dalam atmosfer

INDEKS LINGKUNGAN:
Kadangkala melibatkan variabel polutan yang mencerminkan
jumlah polutan yang dilepaskan ke dalam lingkungan, dan
tidak melibatkan kuantitas polutan yang sebenarnya ada di
dalam lingkungan

VARIABEL POLUTAN
Variabel sumber polutan: Tidak dapat mencerminkan kondisi
lingkungan yang sebenarnya

Variabel polutan mutu lingkungan:


Menyatakan Keadaan Lingkungan ; mengukur kondisi ambien
lingkungan yang aktual

Variabel Polutan mencakup makna:


1. Variabel mutu lingkungan
2. Variabel sumber polutan

INDIKATOR LINGKUNGAN
Indikator Lingkungan merupakan Kuantitas tunggal yang
diturunkan dari satu variabel polutan dan dipakai untuk
mencerminkan (mempresentasikan) beberapa atribut
lingkungan.
Misalnya:
Indikator taraf pencemaran SO2 = banyaknya hari dimana
konsentrasi SO2 atmosfer melampaui baku mutu

Indikator lingkungan dapat disajikan secara individual atau


diagregasikan secara matematik, membentuk suatu INDEKS
LINGKUNGAN

Beberapa indikator yang disajikan secara bersamaan untuk


memberikan gambaran tentang kondisi lingkungan, disebut:
PROFIL KUALITAS LINGKUNGAN

PROFIL KUALITAS LINGKUNGAN


Contoh: ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY PROFILE (1976)
Oleh: EPA SEATLE REGIONAL OFFICE

Untuk melaporkan pelanggaran mutu air digunakan dua


indikator:
1. Panjang sungai yang tidak memenuhi baku mutu ambient
2. Keparahan pelanggaran baku mutu

Untuk melaporkan pelanggaran mutu udara digunakan dua


indikator:
1. Banyaknya hari selama mana baku mutu udara ambient
terlampaui
2. Keparahan taraf pelanggaran baku mutu

CONTOH PROFIL LINGKUNGAN


Komponen
AIR

Indikator

Panjang sungai yg tidak sesuai baku mutu


Keparahan Pelanggaran baku mutu

Trend.

x
x

Improving
Improving

UDARA Jumlah hari pelanggaran baku mutu


Keparahan pelanggaran baku mutu

x
x

Improving
Improving

RADIASI Near term exposure

Tidak ada
perubahan

PESTISIDA Konsentrasi dalam makanan dan air

Improving

LIMBAH
PADAT

% Populasi yang terpengaruhi

Improving

NIOSE

Jumlah orang yg terkena dampak

Serius

Worsening

Keterangan: (x) perlu tindakan penanganan

VARIABEL KUALITAS AIR


1. TROPH: Trophic Conditions = Intensitas aktivitas biologisyg
berlebihan dinyatakan oleh air yang keruh, pertumbuhan
algae yang subur dan juga gulma air
2. DO = dissolved oxygen; jumlah oksigen yang terlarut dalam
air
3. TEMP: suhu air mengendalikan sifat bentuk-bentuk
kehidupan dan laju reaksi kimia
4. pH: ukuran kemasaman air
5. TDG: Total Dissolved Gases; ukuran konsentrasi gas-gas
yang larut dalam air, dapat mempengaruhi metabolisme
bentuk-bentuk kehidupan air
6. TDS: Total dissolved solids; ukuran mineral non-gas yang
larut dalam air, RELATIVE SALTINESS
7. BACT: Bacteria, Kemungkinan adanya organisme dan
virus penyebab penyakit yang tidak bersifat alamiah dalam
air, berasal dari pencernaan hewan dan manusia
8. AEST: Aesthetics, minyak, pelumas, sedimen dan bahan
lain yang dapat dideketsi
9. RAD: Radioaktivitas
10. Otox: Organic Toxicants, Pestisida, dll
11. INTOX: Inorganic toxicant, Logam berat

INDIKATOR KUALITAS UDARA


1.

BAKU MUTU PRIMER:


Ditetapkan pada taraf yang dirancang untuk melindungi
public health

2.

BAKU MUTU SEKUNDER:


Ditetapkan untuk melindungi efek polusi udara yang tidak
berkaitan dengan kesehatan

Enam Macam Polutan Penting:


1. Karbon Monoksida
2. Nitrogen Oxides
3. Hidrokarbon
4. Oksidan Fotokimia
5. Partikulat
6. Sulfur Oksida

KARBON MONOKSIDA: CO
Tidak berwarna, tidak berbau
Hasil pembakaran yang terjadi secara tidak lengkap
Misalnya pembakaran bahan bakar dalam mesin

CO diikat oleh haemoglobin, sehingga mengganggu


kemampuan Hb darah untuk mengikat oksigen.
Akibatnya akan mengganggu suplai oksigen ke dalam otak
Gangguan fungsi mental
Gangguan persepsi visual
Gangguan Alertness
Gangguan fungsi jantung:
Memperlemah kontraksi jantung sehingga suplai darah ke
seluruh tubuh berkurang, sehingga kapasitas kerja menurun

. Daily Chemical Transformations Occurring in the Formation of


Photochemical Smog

http://mtweb.mtsu.edu/nchong/Smog-Atm1.htm

NITROGEN OXIDES: NOx


Berasal dari proses pembakaran suhu tinggi , industri kimia
Dapat mengganggu kesehatan dan kapasitas kerja

Mempengaruhi jaringan paru-paru, peka influenza

Oksida nitrogen bersama dengan hidrokarbon, melalui reaksi


katalisis cahaya matahari, menjadi oksidan fotokimia, menjadi
SMOG
Mengganggu pernafasan dan iritasi mata

Chemical Transformations of Nitrogen Oxides in the


Troposphere

http://mtweb.mtsu.edu/nchong/Smog-Atm1.htm

HIDROKARBON
CH: Alkana, Alkena, Alkina
Sumber: Mesin kendaraan bermotor

Pembentukan Kabut Fotokimia:

Bagaimana perilaku partikulat hidrokarbon di udara? ..

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), also known as polyaromatic hydrocarbons or polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, are
potent atmospheric pollutants that consist of fused aromatic rings
and do not contain heteroatoms or carry substituents.
Naphthalene is the simplest example of a PAH. PAHs occur in oil,
coal, and tar deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel
burning (whether fossil fuel or biomass). As a pollutant, they are of
concern because some compounds have been identified as
carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic.
PAHs are also found in cooked foods. Studies have shown that high
levels of PAHs are found, for example, in meat cooked at high
temperatures such as grilling or barbecuing, and in smoked fish.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon

CHEMISTRY OF PAH
The simplest PAHs, as defined by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) (G.P Moss, IUPAC nomenclature for
fused-ring systems), are phenanthrene and anthracene, which both
contain three fused aromatic rings. Smaller molecules, such as benzene,
are not PAHs.
PAHs may contain four-, five-, six- or seven-member rings, but those
with five or six are most common. PAHs composed only of sixmembered rings are called alternant PAHs. Certain alternant PAHs are
called benzenoid PAHs.
The name comes from benzene, an aromatic hydrocarbon with a single,
six-membered ring. These can be benzene rings interconnected with
each other by single carbon-carbon bonds and with no rings remaining
that do not contain a complete benzene ring.
The set of alternant PAHs is closely related to a set of mathematical
entities called polyhexes, which are planar figures composed by
conjoining regular hexagons of identical size.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon

CHEMISTRY OF PAH
PAHs containing up to six fused aromatic rings are often known as
"small" PAHs, and those containing more than six aromatic rings are
called "large" PAHs. Due to the availability of samples of the various
small PAHs, the bulk of research on PAHs has been of those of up to six
rings.
The biological activity and occurrence of the large PAHs does appear to
be a continuation of the small PAHs. They are found as combustion
products, but at lower levels than the small PAHs due to the kinetic
limitation of their production through addition of successive rings.
In addition, with many more isomers possible for larger PAHs, the
occurrence of specific structures is much smaller.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon

OKSIDAN FOTOKIMIA = Kabut Fotokimia


Muncul dari hasil serangkaian reaksi kimia atmosfer yang
dimulai bila hidrokarbon bersama dengan oksida nitrogen
terkena cahaya matahari
Senyawa yang terlibat: Ozon, Peroksi-asil-nitrat (PAN), Formaldehide, Nitrogen peroksida, Peroksida organik

Oksidator fotokimia:
Gangguan mata
Fungsi paru-paru .. Asma

Photochemical smog is a unique type of air pollution which is


caused by reactions between sunlight and pollutants like
hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide.
Although photochemical smog is often invisible, it can be
extremely harmful, leading to irritations of the respiratory
tract and eyes.
In regions of the world with high concentrations of
photochemical smog, elevated rates of death and respiratory
illnesses have been observed.
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-photochemical-smog.htm

Sumber:
http://www.shodor.org/master/environmental/air/photochem/smogapplication.html

PEMBENTUKAN KABUT FOTOKIMIA


It begins at the bottom with the production of NO and reactive
hydrocarbons by fossil fuel burning (such as an automobile). On the left
side, the NO reacts with tropospheric ozone or a hydrocarbon radical
(RO2 ) to produce NO2 (a radical is a molecule fragment that has an
unpaired electron).
This absorbs solar energy (represented by the letters hv) to create NO
(which propagates the system) and atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen
reacts to form tropospheric ozone, which feeds back into the NOx
system (the "x" here refers to the number of oxygens, and serves as a
general notational term for the nitrogen oxides). Atomic oxygen can
also react with hydroxyl radicals, OH, and ozone to form the reactive
hydrocarbon radicals utilized in the NOx system.
These radicals also react to form other components of smog, such as
PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) and aldehydes (RC=OH, where R is some
hydrocarbon chain).
The graphic below shows the essential workings of the NOx system,
with the interactions between NO and NO2 on the left and the
production/washout of HNO3 on the right:

Rekasi Pembentukan kabut fotokimia

The development of photochemical smog is dependent upon solar


radiation, source emissions of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, and
atmospheric stability (for enhanced concentrations). Early in the
morning, commuter traffic releases NO and hydrocarbons. At the same
time, NO2 may decrease through because the sunlight can break it
down to NO and O. The O is then free to react with O 2 to form O3.
Shortly thereafter, oxidized hydrocarbons react with NO to increase
NO2 by midmorning. This reaction causes NO to decrease and O 3 to
build up, producing a midday peak in O3 and minimum in NO. As the
smog ripens, visibility may be reduced due to light scattering by
aerosols. Primarily due to the dependence on commuter traffic between
surburbs and cities, there are presently more than 40 urban areas in
violation of the US ambient air quality standard for ozone.

THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG


FORMATION

http://mtweb.mtsu.edu/nchong/Smog-Atm1.htm

We can also look at the formation of photochemical smog from a


kinetic perspective.
This chart shows the nine key equations of smog production, and the
rate constant that affects the speed (or rate) at which the reaction takes
place:

In this graphic, we see the involvement of the NOx system and the production of
ozone. Here is a narrative version of the graphic above:
1.Reaction 1: NO2, reacts with light energy, hv , to form NO and a singlet oxygen atom. The
rate of this reaction depends on how much light energy there is -- a sunny day versus a
cloudy day!
2.Reaction 2: singlet oxygen reacts with the oxygen molecule (what you breathe) in the
presence of a catalyst "M" to form ozone, O3. The catalyst M remains unchanged (which is
the definition of a catalyst!). The rate of this reaction depends on the temperature in the
atmosphere.
3.Reaction 3: Ozone reacts with NO to produce more NO2 and O2. These products feed back
into Reactions 1 and 2, thus ensuring a steady production of ozone! The rate of this reaction
also depends on the temperature in the atmosphere.
4.Reaction 4: Ozone is degraded (broken down) by light energy, forming a charged form of
singlet oxygen, O(1D), and more molecular oxygen. Notice that this reaction proceeds at a
much slower rate than the first reaction (about one-fourth of one percent as slow!)
5.Reaction 5: the charged oxygen reacts with a catalyst to return to its normal state of singlet
oxygen (which is, by the way, poisonous to breathe!)
6.Reaction 6: some of the charged oxygen reacts with water in the atmosphere to form a
hydroxyl radical, OH . Radicals are fragments of molecules that have at least one unpaired
electron, and are highly reactive. The hydroxyl radical, for example, is responsible for the
majority of the chemical reactions that happen in the atmosphere during the day. Other
radicals take control at night-time when there is no energy from the sun.
7.Reaction 7: carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, produced by fossil-fuel burning such as
automobiles, reacts strongly with hydroxyl radicals to form carbon dioxide and HO 2 radicals.
8.Reaction 8: the HO2 radicals formed in Reaction 7 react with the extra NO in the
atmosphere to form more NO2 and more OH radicals. The rate of this reaction is dependent
on the temperature in the atmosphere.
9.Reaction 9: the hydroxyl radicals react with NO2 to form nitric acid, HNO3, which will
eventually be one of the culprits in the formation of acid rain.

PARTIKULAT
TSP: Total Suspended Particulate
Adalah total masa partikulat cair dan padatan yang ada di
udara , seperti Jelaga, Asap, Debu, Mist dan Spray.
Berasal dari proses pembakaran
Konsentrasinya: 0.1 10

Particulates also known as particulate matter (PM),


suspended particulate matter (SPM), fine particles,
and soot are tiny subdivisions of solid matter
suspended in a gas or liquid. In contrast, aerosol refers
to particles and/or liquid droplets and the gas together.
Sources of particulate matter can be man made or
natural. Air pollution and water pollution can take the
form of solid particulate matter, or be dissolved.
Salt is an example of a dissolved contaminant in water,
while sand is generally a solid particulate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates

FOG
Fog is a collection of liquid water droplets or ice crystals
suspended in the air at or near the Earth's surface. While fog
is a type of stratus cloud, the term "fog" is typically
distinguished from the more generic term "cloud" in that
fog is low-lying, and the moisture in the fog is often
generated locally (such as from a nearby body of water, like
a lake or the ocean, or from nearby moist ground or
marshes).
Fog is distinguished from mist only by its density, as
expressed in the resulting decrease in visibility: Fog
reduces visibility to less than 1 km (5/8 statute mile),
whereas mist reduces visibility to no less than 1 km .
For aviation purposes in the UK, a visibility of less than
2 km but greater than 999 m is considered to be mist if the
relative humidity is 95% or greater - below 95% haze is
reported.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog

SOOT
Soot ( /st/) is a general term that refers to impure carbon
particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a
hydrocarbon. It is more properly restricted to the product of
the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly
extended to include the residual pyrolyzed fuel particles
such as coal, cenospheres, charred wood, petroleum coke,
and so on, that may become airborne during pyrolysis and
that are more properly identified as cokes or chars.
The gas-phase soots contain polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs).
The PAHs in soot are known mutagens and are classified as
a "known human carcinogen" by the International Agency
for Research on Cancer (IARC).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soot

SOOT
Soot, as an airborne contaminant in the environment has
many different sources but they are all the result of some
form of pyrolysis. They include soot from coal burning,
internal combustion engines, power plant boilers, hog-fuel
boilers, ship boilers, central steam heat boilers, waste
incineration, local field burning, house fires, forest fires,
fireplaces, furnaces, etc.
These exterior sources also contribute to the indoor
environment sources such as smoking of plant matter,
cooking, oil lamps, candles, quartz/halogen bulbs with settled
dust, fireplaces, defective furnaces, etc. Soot in very low
concentrations is capable of darkening surfaces or making
particle agglomerates, such as those from ventilation systems,
appear black.
Soot is the primary cause of "ghosting", the discoloration of
walls and ceilings or walls and flooring where they meet. It is
generally responsible for the discoloration of the walls above
baseboard electric heating units and can be known as a gas.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soot

SOOT
The formation of soot depends strongly on the fuel
composition.
The rank ordering of sooting tendency of fuel components
is: naphthalenes benzenes aliphatics. However, the
order of sooting tendencies of the aliphatics (alkanes,
alkenes, alkynes) varies dramatically depending on the
flame type.
The difference between the sooting tendencies of aliphatics
and aromatics is thought to result mainly from the different
routes of formation.
Aliphatics appear to first form acetylene and
polyacetylenes; aromatics can form soot both by this route
and also by a more direct pathway involving ring
condensation or polymerization reactions building on the
existing aromatic structure
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soot

SULFUR OKSIDA: SOx


Dapat bereaksi dengan air menjadi Sulfit dan Sulfat
SO2 + H2O --------------- H2SO3
SO3 + H2O -------------- H2SO4

Limbah pembakaran minyak dan batubara

Gangguan kesehatan dan gangguan material (korosi)

The principal approaches to controlling SOx emissions include use


of low-sulfur fuel; reduction or Sulfur Oxides:
Pollution Prevention and Control removal of sulfur in the feed;
use of appropriate combustion technologies; and emissions control
technologies such as sorbent injection and flue gas desulfurization
(FGD).
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?
q=cache:sgpFPol2unEJ:www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/

. Photolysis of sulphuric acid as the source of sulphur oxides in the


mesosphere of Venus
Xi Zhang, Mao-Chang Liang, Franck Montmessin, Jean-Loup Bertaux,
Christopher Parkinson, and Yuk L. Yung. Nature Geoscience Year published:
(2010)

FUNGSI KERUSAKAN
Fungsi matematik:
Fungsi yang menyatakan hubungan antara variabel polutan
dengan efeknya terhadap manusia dan lingkungan hidupnya

Fungsi ini penting untuk mendisain indikator pencemaran


lingkungan
Penyusunan Indeks Pencemaran / Kualitas Lingkungan:
Dari hubungan antara pencemar terukur dengan Estimated
Death Rate: DAMAGE FUNCTION
DOSE-EFFECT-FUNCTION
Persamaan yg menghubungkan pencemar dengan dampaknya
terhadap organisme atau kualitas lingkungan

FUNGSI KERUSAKAN
Ekspresi kuantitatif tentang hubungan antara keberadaan suatu
polutan dengan tingkat dampak yang ditimbulkannya pada
populasi target (sasaran)

Dalam mempresentasikan fungsi kerusakan harus sejelas


mungkin:
Polutan apa
Dosisnya berapa
Dampaknya bagaimana
Populasi sasarannya
Kerusakan BIOFISIK: Fungsi kerusakan fisik atau biologis
Kerusakan ekonomi: Fungsi kerusakan ekonomi, berdimensi moneter,
Menyatakan korelasi antara kerusakan ekonomi dengan taraf polutan
ambien

FUNGSI KERUSAKAN: TEORITIS


Fungsi kerusakan: Harus mencerminkan fenomena ambang
Fenomena ambang: Ada nilai ambang minimal,
di bawah mana tidak terjadi kerusakan
di atas nilai ambang akan terjadi peningkatan
kerusakan secara cepat bila polutan bertambah
TLV: Threshold Limiting Value; merupakan konsep adaptasi
Kecenderungan organisme untuk mengembangkan toleransi
terhadap konsentrasi rendah bahan toksik

Dampak
.

Dampak
.
Jenuh

Linear

Ambang
Ambang
Polutan

Polutan

STRUKTUR INDEKS LINGKUNGAN


Tujuan Indeks adalah untuk menyederhanakan
Dua macam bentuk Indeks Lingkungan:
1. ANGKA INDEKS: nilainya meningkat sejalan dengan
peningkatan pencemaran lingkungan; Indeks Pencemaran
Lingkungan; Increasing scale
2.

ANGKA INDEKS : Nilainya menurun apabila pencemaran


lingkungan meningkat; Indeks Kualitas Lingkungan;
Decreasing scale

STRUKTUR MATEMATIKA INDEKS


Perhitungan indeks lingkungan terdiri atas dua tahap:
1. Perhitungan sub-indeks untuk peubah-peubah polutan
yang digunakan dalam indeks
2. Agregasi sub-indeks menjadi indeks

Misalnya: ada sebanyak i variabel polutan :


Xi = nilai untuk variabel polutan ke i
Sub indeks ke-i : Ii = f(Xi)
Subindeks menyatakan karakteristik lingkungan dari peubah
polutan tertentu
Agregasi sub-indeks:
I = g (I1, I2, In);

n=1I

AGREGASI SUB-INDEKS:
3.

1.
Summation
2.
Multiplication
Maximization, sub-indeks maksimum yang dipakai

Pengukuran Lingkungan
Peubah Polutan: X1

Subindeks 1
I1 = f(X1)

Peubah Polutan: X2

Peubah Polutan: Xn

Subindeks 2
I2 = f(X2)

Subindeks n
In = f(Xn)

AGREGASI:
I = g(I1,I2,In)

INDEKS I

MACAM INDEKS
INDEKS ABSOLUT:
Fungsi hubungan antara variabel polutan dengan indeks
lingkungan ditetapkan (telah diketahui)

INDEKS RELATIF:
Indeks tidak hanya tergantung pada sesuatu observasi
(variabel) tertentu, tetapi juga tergantung pada banyak
observasi (variabel) lainnya

SUB-INDEKS
FUNGSI LINEAR:
I=

X I : subindeks
X : Variabel polutan

: Konstante
SEGMENTED LINEAR FUNCTION:
Threshold level
Break point, titik kritis, titik belok

NON-LINEAR (segmented) FUNCTION:


Power function
Logarithm function
Exponential function
Asymptotic function, etc.

AGREGASI SUB-INDEKS
1.

ADDITIVE FORM:
Linear-sum Unweighted
Linear-sum Weighted

2. ROOT-SUM-POWER
I = (I1)2 + (I2)2 + ..+ (In)2
3. ROOT-MEAN-SQUARE
4. MAXIMUM OPERATOR:
I = Max (I1, I2, I3, In)
5. Multiplicative form
Unweighted
: I=
Weighted

Ii

I = Ii wi

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