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Presentation on

Wind energy, Solar energy &


Nuclear energy.
- Ishan O. Trivedi.
-TIFAC, Surat.

Solar energy

What is Solar Energy?


Radiation Energy
produced by the sun
Clean, renewable
source of energy
Harnessed by solar
collection methods
such as solar cells
Converted into
usable energy such
as electricity

Photovoltaic (solar)
panel

Set of solar panels

Sources: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_systems.html
http://thomashawk.com/hello/209/1017/1024/Staring%20at%20the%20Sun.jpg

Sun and electrical


power lines

Energy from the Sun is


Abundant
The Earth receives

174 petawatts (PW)


of incoming solar
radiation (insolation)
at the upper
atmosphere
Solar power systems
installed in the areas
defined by the dark
disks could meet the
world's current total
energy demand

Source: http://www.ez2c.de/ml/solar_land_area/

Solar energy.
Solar energy can be used in 2 ways:
- Passive solar energy: Direct use for
heating/ lighting/ drying/ ventilation
purposes.
- Active solar energy: Conversion to
electricity with the aid of special
instruments.

Passive solar energy

Architecture and urban


planning: The common
features of passive solar
architecture are orientation
relative to the Sun, compact
proportion (a low surface area
to volume ratio), selective
shading (overhangs) and
thermal mass. Eg. Green
building concept.
Agriculture and horticulture:
Techniques such as timed
planting cycles, tailored row
orientation, staggered heights
between rows and the mixing
of plant varieties can improve
crop yields.

Solar lighting
Daylighting: The history
of lighting is dominated
by the use of natural light.
Hybrid solar lighting is
an active solar method of
providing interior
illumination. HSL systems
collect sunlight using
focusing mirrors that track
the Sun and use optical
fibers to transmit it inside
the building to
supplement conventional
lighting.

Solar thermal
Water heating: Solar hot
water systems use
sunlight to heat water.
Heating, cooling and
ventilation: Thermal
mass is any material that
can be used to store heat
heat from the Sun in
the case of solar energy.
Common thermal mass
materials include stone,
cement and water.

Solar thermal..
Water treatment: The method
involves evaporation,
distillation and condensation
process.
Solar water disinfection
(SODIS) involves exposing
water-filled plastic polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) bottles to
sunlight for several hours.
Cooking: Solar cookers use
sunlight for cooking, drying and
pasteurization.

And,
How is electricity generated ?

Solar Electric Power Plants


Harness solar power to
generate electricity
Main types:
Solar thermal energy
Has mirrored surface that
reflects sunlight to heat
up liquid to make steam
to generate electricity

Array of mirrored solar collectors at


FPL Energy site in California

Photovoltaic
Uses photovoltaic cells
that absorb direct
sunlight.
Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energ
http://www.fplenergy.com/portfolio/solar/facts.shtml#glance

Concentrated solar collector (parabolic)

Know the cotton experiment


with magnifying glass ?

Solar cooker concentrating sunlight

Solar thermal power plant

Photovoltaic method

Solar Cells are Converters of


Energy

Light energy

Solar cells are


devices that take light
energy as input and
convert it into
electrical energy
Electrical energy (carried
through wires)

Solar cell - converts light


energy to electricity

Photovoltaic Solar Cells


Generate electricity
directly from sunlight
2 Main types:
Single-crystal silicon
(traditional)

Silicon-based
solar cell

Widespread
Expensive to manufacture

Dye-sensitized (nano)
Newer, less proven
Inexpensive to
manufacture
Flexible

Dye-sensitized
solar cell

But Not All Energy is


Converted
Like chloroplasts in plants, solar cells can only
absorb specific wavelengths of light.
In both, light that isnt absorbed is either
transmitted through or reflected back.
Whether a certain wavelength of lights gets
absorbed depends on its energy.

Chlorophyll molecules
absorb blue and red light,
but reflect green light

Source: http://ebiomedia.com/prod/cyclops/images/image004.jpg

Light and its absorption.

Different colors of light have different


wavelengths and different energies
Source: http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/arny/instructor/graphics/ch03/0305.html

Absorption occurs only when the


energy of the light equals the energy
of transition of an electron
Single
electron
transition in
an isolated
atom

Light

Sources: http://members.aol.com/WSRNet/tut/absorbu.htm, http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/light/absorption.html

So What Does this Mean for


Solar
Cells?
In dye-sensitized solar

cells
Transition from highest
occupied molecular orbital
(HOMO) to lowest
unoccupied molecular
orbital (LUMO)
In single-crystal silicon
solar cells
Transition to conduction
band (excited states)
from valence band
(ground states)
Source: Original Images

Dye-Sensitized and Siliconbased Solar Cells Compared


Dye-Sensitized
Relatively
inexpensive
Need little TLC
Short return on
investment

Sources: http://www.imo.uhasselt.be/polytech/images/zonnecel1.jpg
http://www.norfolksolar.co.uk/img/system.gif

Traditional
Expensive
Need TLC
Long return on
investment

Solar Panel Use Today


Large companies like Google,
Walmart, and Microsoft use
solar energy to partially power
some of their facilities

Solar panels on Microsoft building


Sources: http://i.n.com.com/i/ne/p/2006/IMG_5396_550x367.jpg
http://www.solarwall.de/assets/images/Walmart_SW.jpg

Solar panels being tested


on Walmart store

Parabolic Dishes and Troughs

Collectors in southern CA.


Because they work best under direct
sunlight, parabolic dishes and troughs must
be steered throughout the day in the

Advantages of Solar energy to the


environment...
It is a renewable energy.
Sun is an ever-lasting source of energy.
It is non-polluting.
It does not release any green-house
gases. Moreover, the production of solar cells
also does not produce much green house
gases.
It does not produce any noise.
Solar power does not produce any noise
like wind energy or hydro energy.

Advantages of Solar energy to the


environment...
Solar cells are recyclable.
After the life of solar cells is finished, solar cells can be recycled
to form functional solar cells.
Solar energy is uniformly distributed all over the earth.
Solar energy is available to all countries free of cost. Every country
gets good amount of solar energy every day. No country can claim
that they do not get solar energy.

Easy availability.
The photovoltaic cells which constitute most solar energy systems
are usually made of silicon, one of the most common minerals found
on Earth. That means that creating the components is extremely
easy, doesn't require mining or drilling in a dangerous locale to
produce

Disadvantages of solar energy..


Solar energy is highly diffuse.
We need special collectors in order to be able to use solar energy in an
effective form.
Currently, the efficiency of solar cells is very less.
Todays solar cells can generate only about 45 milliwatts per square inch.
Solar energy is not available at night.
Special storage facilities like batteries are needed to store solar energy.
Life of batteries is only 4 years.
Solar cells are very expensive.
Angle of incidence is very important while generating electricity with
solar cells. Angle of incidence should be 90 degrees for maximum
efficiency. This angle is difficult to maintain at all times.

Environmental impacts of Solar


energy..
Cadmium
Cadmium is used in cadmium telluride solar cells
as a semiconductor to convert solar energy into
electricity. Though used in very small amounts, it
is extremely toxic and can build up in a given
ecosystem if it isn't monitored.

Wind energy

WIND POWER - What is it?


In laymens language, Air in motion is called wind.
All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power),
ultimately comes from the sun
The earth receives 1.74 x 1017 watts of power (per hour) from the
sun
About one or 2 percent of this energy is converted to wind energy
(which is about 50-100 times more than the energy converted to
biomass by all plants on earth).
Differential heating of the earths surface
and atmosphere induces vertical and
horizontal air currents that are affected by
the earths rotation and contours of
the land WIND.
~ e.g.: Land Sea Breeze Cycle.

Winds are influenced by the ground surface at altitudes up to


100 meters.
Wind is slowed by the surface roughness and obstacles.
When dealing with wind energy, we are concerned with
surface winds.
A wind turbine obtains its power input by converting the
force of the wind into a torque (turning force) acting on the
rotor blades.
The amount of energy which the wind transfers to the
rotor depends on the density of the air, the rotor area and
the wind speed.
The kinetic energy of a moving body is proportional to its
mass (or weight). The kinetic energy in the wind thus depends
on the density of the air, i.e. its mass per unit of volume.
In other words, the "heavier" the air, the more energy is
received by the turbine.
at 15 Celsius air weighs about 1.225 kg per cubic meter, but
the density decreases slightly with increasing humidity.

WINDMILL DESIGN

A Windmill captures
wind energy and then
uses a generator to
convert it to electrical
energy.
The design of a
windmill is an integral
part of how efficient it
will be.
When designing a
windmill, one must
decide on the size of
the turbine, and the
size of the generator.

Wind Turbines:
Number of Blades:
Most common design is the three-bladed turbine. The most important reason is
the stability of the turbine. A rotor with an odd number of rotor blades (and at least
three blades) can be considered to be similar to a disc when calculating the dynamic
properties of the machine.
A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability problems for a machine
with a stiff structure. The reason is that at the very moment when the uppermost
blade bends backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the
lowermost blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.

Orientation
Turbines can be categorized into two overarching
classes based on the orientation of the rotor
Vertical Axis
Horizontal Axis

Vertical Axis Turbines


Advantages
Omnidirectional

Disadvantages

Accepts wind from any


angle

Components can be
mounted at ground level

Ease of service
Lighter weight towers

Can theoretically use


less materials to capture
the same amount of
wind

Rotors generally near


ground where wind poorer
Centrifugal force stresses
blades
Poor self-starting capabilities
Requires support at top of
turbine rotor
Requires entire rotor to be
removed to replace bearings
Overall poor performance
and reliability
Have never been
commercially successful

Types of Electricity Generating Windmills


Small (10 kW)
Homes
Farms
Remote
Applications
(e.g. water
pumping, telecom
sites, icemaking)

Intermediate
(10-250 kW)
Village Power
Hybrid Systems
Distributed
Power

Large (250 kW 2+MW)


Central Station Wind
Farms
Distributed Power

Wind Energy:
The Technology

Calculation of Wind Power


the= wind
Power
Power
in thein
Wind
AV3
where,
= Effect of air density,
A = Effect of swept area and
V = Effect of wind speed

Swept Area: A = R2
Area of the circle swept
by the rotor (m2).

Importance of Wind Speed


No other factor is more
important to the amount
of power available in the
wind than the speed of
the wind
Power is a cubic function
of wind speed
VXVXV
20% increase in wind
speed means 73% more
power
Doubling wind speed
means 8 times more
power

Overspeed Protection: Furling

Some images

Early WINDMILL in Afghanistan (900AD)

Jacobs Turbine
1920 - 1960

Smith-Putnam Turbine
Vermont, 1940's

Windfarm 2

Off-Shore Windfarms

Middelgrunden

Advantages of Wind Power

The wind blows day and night, which allows windmills to


produce electricity throughout the day. (Faster during the
day)
Wind power is available in ample amounts in all coastal
areas.
The decreasing cost of wind power and the growing interest
in renewable energy sources should ensure that wind power
will become a viable energy source worldwide.

Environmental advantages of wind


power.
It does not produce any carbon dioxide.
It is a renewable energy.
There is no use of fossil fuels.
Almost 95% of the land in use can be used for
farming/recreational purpose.

Wind Energy is the Fastest Growing Energy Source in the World!!

US installed capacity grew a WHOPPING

45%

in 2007!!!

Key Environmental
Issues facing Wind
Power

FACT:

Avian Deaths Per Year

500

Glass Windows

174

Electric Transmission
Line Collisions
House cats

100
100

Hunting

75

Automobiles

1
67

Agriculture

Communication Towers

1.5

Oil and Gas Extraction

0.001

Electrocution

0.000809106

Wind Turbines

100

200

300

400

Annual Bird Deaths (Millions)

500

600

Impacts of Wind Power:


Noise
Modern turbines are
relatively quiet
Rule of thumb stay about
3x hub-height away from
houses

Attractiveness.
Large windmills generate more electricity,
but move slowly and so have less
attractiveness among people.
Small windmills( fast moving) have more
attractiveness but generate less electricity.

Tax Credits
Whenever, tax incentives have been
removed, interest of investors has steeply
decreased.
Tax incentives increase government
expenditure and lead to fiscal deficit.

Predicting Power Output

Renewable energy.

Capital cost.
Capital cost of
installing a wind
turbine is very high.

Land acquisitions by
the governments may
also create problems.

Nuclear energy

Brief History

Nuclear energy was first discovered in 1934


by Enrico Fermi. The first nuclear bombs were
built in 1945 as a result of the infamous
Manhattan Project. The first plutonium bomb,
code-named Trinity, was detonated on July 16,
1945 in New Mexico. On August 6th 1945 the first
uranium bomb was detonated over Hiroshima.
Three days later a plutonium bomb was dropped
on Nagasaki. There is over 200,000 deaths
associated with these detonations. Electricity
wasnt produced with nuclear energy until 1951.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by
John May

Mass and energy


Einstein suggested that mass and energy are
related by E=mc2 (c = 3.0 x 108 m/s)
E: energy, m: mass, c: speed of light
Converting the mass of one penny could
provide the entire energy requirements for
700 people for one year
Power a space heater for 7000 years
Thats about $3 million worth of electricity
Because mass and energy are related the law of
conservation of energy and law of conservation
of mass can be combined into the Law of
Conservation of Mass - Energy

Electricity generation.
Electricity can be generated from nuclear
energy by 2 methods:
- Nuclear fission.
- Nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission
The nuclei of heavy atoms are
split under bombardment by
neutrons.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle


We will start the nuclear fuel cycle
with a brief explanation of how
nuclear energy works, the
enrichment process, and then
power reactors. Following will be
information on Three Mile Island
and Chernobyl, the risk of reactor
leaks, and the impacts on the
communities and the environment.
Then we will discuss the nuclear
weapons program, including the
use of depleted uranium,
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, weapons
testing, and the effects on soldiers,
victims, communities, and the
environment.
Source: http://www.sonic.net/~kerry/uranium.html

Mining

Uranium ore is usually located aerially; core


samples are then drilled
and analyzed
by geologists. The uranium ore is extracted by
means of drilling and blasting. Mines can be in
either open pits or underground. Uranium
concentrations are a small percentage of the
rock that is mined, so tons of tailings waste are
generated by the mining process.

Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html and


http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf and
http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/mining.htm

Milling & Leaching


The ore is first crushed into smaller
bits, then it is sent through a ball mill
where it is crushed into a fine powder.
The fine ore is mixed with water,
thickened, and then put into leaching
tanks where 90% of the uranium ore is
leached out with sulfuric acid. Next the
uranium ore is separated from the
depleted ore in a multistage washing
system. The depleted ore is then
neutralized with lime and put into a
tailings repository.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf

Yellowcake
Meanwhile, the uranium
solution is filtered, and then
goes through a solvent
extraction process that
includes kerosene and
ammonia to purify the uranium
solution. After purification the
uranium is put into precipitation
tanksthe result is a product
commonly called yellowcake.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf

Transportation
In the final processes the
yellow cake is heated to
800Celcius which makes a
dark green powder which is
98% U3O8. The dark green
powder is put into 200 liter
drums and loaded into
shipping containers and are
shipped overseas to fuel
nuclear power plants.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf

Mining Leaders

Australia and Canada are currently the


biggest Uranium miners. The aforementioned
process that takes place in Australia is exported
because Australia does not have a nuclear
energy program. The mining in Australian is
primarily open pit, while the mining in Canada is
mostly underground. Following is two charts
one is the major uranium producing countries,
the other is of the major corporations that
actually do the mining.
Source:
http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uwai.html

Production in 2000
Canada

10,682

Australia

7,578

Niger

2,895

Namibia

2,714

Uzbekistan

2,350

Russia (est)

2,000

Kazakhstan
USA

company

tonnes U

Cameco

7218

1,752

Cogema

6643

1,456

WMC

3693

ERA

3564

South Africa

878

China (est)

500

Ukraine (est)

500

Navoi

2400

Czech Republic

500

Rossing

2239

India (est)

200

France

319

KazAtomProm

2018

others

422

Priargunsky

2000

Total world

34,746

Source: http://www.world-

Conversion

To enrich uranium it must be in the


gas form of UF6. This is called
conversion. The conversion diagram
shown here is from Honeywell. First
the yellow cake is converted to uranium
dioxide through a heating process (this
step was also mentioned in the mining
process). Then anhydrous hydrofluoric
acid is used to make UF4. Next the
UF4 is mixed with fluorine gas to make
uranium hexafluoride. This liquid is
stored in steel drums and crystallizes.

Source: http://www.gat.com/converdyn/dfcp.html

Enrichment

Uranium enrichment increases the amount of U235 in


comparison to U238. Domestic power plants use a mixture that is
3-5% U235, while highly enriched uranium is generally used for
weapons, some research facilities, and naval reactors. Domestic
reactors usually require fuel in the form of uranium dioxide and
weapons use the enriched mix in the form of a metal. The
conversion and enrichment process is very dangerous because
not only is the uranium hexafluoride radioactive, it is also
chemically toxic. In addition, if the uranium hexafluoride comes in
contact with moisture it will release another very toxic chemical
called hydrofluoric acid. There have been numerous accidents
during the conversion and enrichment process. Depleted uranium
is the waste that is generated from the enrichment process.
Source: http://www.anawa.org.au/chain/enrichment.html

Fuel Fabrication

After being enriched, the UF6 is


taken to a fuel fabrication facility
that presses the powder into
small pellets. The pellets are put
into long tubes. These tubes are
called fuel rods. A fuel assembly
is a cluster of these sealed rods.
Fuel assemblies go in the core of
the nuclear reactor. It takes
approximately 25 tonnes of fuel
to power one 1000 MWe reactor
per year. The picture on the right
is a fuel assembly.

Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htm

Transportation

Radioactive materials are


transported from the
milling location to the
conversion location, then
from the conversion
location to the enrichment location, then from the
enrichment location to the to the fuel fabrication facility,
and finally to the power plant. These materials are
transported in special containers by specialized transport
companies. People involved in the transport process are
trained to respond to emergencies. In the US, Asia, and
Western Europe transport is mainly by truck, and in Russia
mainly by train. Intercontinental transport is usually by
ship, and sometimes by air. Since 1971 there has been
over 20,000 shipments with no incidents and limited
operator exposure.
Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf20print.htm

Nuclear fission
When a sufficient amount of
fissionable material is brought
together chain reaction occurs

Nuclear fission
Splitting atoms
and releasing a
tremendous
amount of
heat.

Nuclear fission
Approximately 20,000 times as
much heat and energy is
released from uranium fuels as
from an equivalent amount of
coal.

Reactor Types
PRWPressurized Water Reactordoes not boil, but uses the pressure
of the water to heat a secondary source of water that generates electricity.
Most popular (accounts for 65% of reactors world wide). Considered a
light water reactor.
BRWBoiling Water Reactorboils water (coolant) that makes steam to
turn turbines. Conducive to internal contamination. Also considered a light
water reactor.
RBMKGraphite-moderated pressure tube boiling-water reactor similar to
BWR but uses graphite and oxygen. Complex and difficult to examine.
CANDUCanadian Deuterium UraniumDoesnt use enriched fuel. Has
lots of tubes and internal contamination issues.
MagnoxGas cooled reactor. Cooled with carbon dioxide or helium, and
uses natural uranium. (UK and France).
AGRAdvanced Gas-cooledalso cooled with carbon dioxide or helium.
Uses enriched uranium. (UK).
Fast Breederhigh temperature gas reactor. Uses U235, U238, and
Plutonium 239. Very dangerous because it uses liquid sodium in the
primary circuit and in inflammable with air and explosive with water.
Source: www.world-

Nuclear fusion

Nuclear forces
There are two opposing forces in the nucleus:
Electrostatic (+ve proton repels +ve proton)
Strong force (nucleons attract each other)
The strong force is stronger, but acts over a shorter
distance. Adding more nucleons is favored with small
nuclei but not with large
E.g. adding a proton to a small vs. large nucleus

Nuclear Fusion
Fusion is combining together
the atoms are fused together
rather than split apart
possibilities for nuclear fusion
are much greater than those
for nuclear fission.

Solar energy is any form of


energy radiated by the sun, including
light, radio waves, and X-rays.
Thermonuclear fusion is the energy
producing process which takes place
continuously in the sun and stars.
Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in
which nuclei combine to form more
massive nuclei with the simultaneous
release of energy. The combining of the
different protons leads to the formation
of a new element. In the core of the sun
at temperatures of 10-15 million degrees
Celsius, Hydrogen is converted to
Helium providing more than enough
energy to sustain life on earth.
Regions of the sun include the core,
radiation zone, convection zone, and
photosphere. Gases in the core are
about 150 times as dense as water and
reach temperatures as high as 16
million degrees. Nuclear fusion of the
hydrogen atoms takes place in the core.

In order for fusion reactions to occur, the particles must


be hot enough (temperature), in sufficient number
(density) and well contained (confinement time). These
simultaneous conditions are represented by a fourth
state of matter known as plasma. In a plasma, electrons
are stripped from their nuclei. A plasma, therefore,
consists of charged particles, ions and electrons.
Temperature upto several million degree centigrades
are reached. There is no substance on earth that can
tolerate this high temperatures.
So, how is plasma confined ?

Tokamak Technology:
Magnetic Confinement
Efforts to control fusion first relied on the
principle of magnetic confinement, in which
a powerful magnetic field traps a hot
deuterium-tritium plasma long enough for
fusion to begin.
In November 1997, researchers exploiting the magnetic
confinement approach created a fusion reaction that
produced 65 percent as much energy as was fed into it to
initiate the reaction. This milestone was achieved in England
at the Joint European Torus, a tokamak facility--a doughnutshaped vessel in which the plasma is magnetically confined.
A commercial fusion reactor would have to produce far more
energy than went into it to start or maintain the reaction.

At Princeton University's plasma physics laboratory in New Jersey, scientists


have produced a controlled fusion reaction at the Tokamak Fusion Test
Reactor there. During these reaction the temperature in the reactor
surpassed three times that of the core of the sun.

Developments
Nuclear fusion reactor is under construction at
the Cadarache site in southern France.
It will be operational in 2011 AD.

Sources:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4629239.stm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITER

Advantages of Nuclear energy..


It is a clean form of energy and does not
generate any Carbon dioxide.
Nuclear power plants do not require a
large amount of working space.
It is a highly concentrated form of energy.
It is very cheap.

Negative impacts of use of


nuclear technology.

Nuclear bombs.
Reactor mishandling.
Waste dumping (in case of fission energy).
Life of nuclear reactors is only 40-50
years.

Hiroshimabefore

Source:
http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1259a.gif

Hiroshimaafter

Source:
http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1260a.gif

Three Mile Island


Three Mile Island is a pair of PRWs.
The second one was built in a hurry for tax purposes
(started operation on December 30, 1798 to meet
deadline). On March 28, 1979, the Pilot Operated Relief
Valve was stuck open and caused pressure to be released
from the primary cooling system. The fuel rods came
apart and radioactive material discharged into the sky.
Two days later 3,500 pregnant women and children were
evacuated. Although there were no official instructions to
do so, many others left as well. Numerous residents in the
aftermath developed various cancers and thyroid
diseases.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by
John May; picture:

Chernobyl

Chernobyl had the RBMK


design. In an experiment,
technicians let the power of
reactor 4 fall, and on April
26,
1986 the result was rapid
power levels rising inside the core
melting fuel and causing a reactor
containment breachin addition to an
internal hydrogen explosion. The top of the
reactor blew off and spewed radioactive material
into the atmosphere for 10 days.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by
John May
Picture: http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/

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