Biological Bases of Behaviour.

Lecture 7: Techniques for

Understanding
Brain Structure
& Function.

Kalat

(2000)

Learning Outcomes.
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Describe a range of techniques used to determine
brain structure and function.
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of each of
the techniques described.

The Techniques
Many techniques have been developed to enable
biological psychologists to understand how the brain
works, each having their own advantages and
disadvantages.
It is rare that a single method will provide a
convincing explanation, more often one or more
techniques are utilised to provide a clearer picture.
This is referred to as 'converging operations'
(Carlson, 1994).

1. Neuroanatomical
Techniques.
These tell us about the anatomical structure of the brain.
a) Histological Procedures: Gross examination of the
brain does not allow us to study details of cell structure
and connectivity, to do so we need to selectively stain
thin slices of the brain.
Preservation: After death the soft brain tissue is
destroyed by autolytic enzymes, so the brain must be
preserved with a fixative, such as formalin.
The brain is then embedded within a paraffin block that
can be sliced thinly using a microtome and mounted on
slides.
Histological stains have been developed so that cell
bodies, nerve fibres and membranes can be selectively
viewed

2. Imaging the Living Brain.

The methods previously described have all required
the brain to be removed.
The following techniques enable neural structure
and function to be viewed in the living brain.
Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT): Consists of a
circular arrangement of x-ray emitters and detectors
in which progressive scans through the brain can be
taken.
A 2-dimensional image of horizontal sections can
then be produced.
This technique is used mainly to diagnose
neurological conditions such as tumours, blood clots,
degenerative disease and the location of strokes.

CAT scan from a patient with a

lesion
in the right occipital-parietal
area.

Lesion site

Carlson
119

(1994)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(MRI).

MRI
takes
detailed
pictures, using a strong
magnetic field.
It detects radiation from
hydrogen
molecules
present in all brain tissue
in different concentrations.
Sagittal,
horizontal
and
frontal
images
are
produced.
MRI has now been adapted
to show function as well this is called functional
magnetic
resonance
imaging (fMRI).

Carlson
120

(1994)

Positron Emission Tomography

(PET).
Radioactive glucose is taken up by active cells in the
brain.
As the radioactive isotopes decay, they emit
positrons which are detected by the scanner.
In a typical experiment, images of blood flow or
radioactive counts during a control state are
subtracted from images taken during functional
activation (i.e. when the individual is performing
some type of cognitive task).
By subtracting measurements in the control state
from a task state it is possible to identify those
areas of the brain concerned with specific mental
operations (Raichle, 1994).

PET Scan of Brain

Activation.

Normal elderly control

patient
Rosenzweig et al (2002) p

Alzheimers

Advantages/Disadvantages
of Brain Imaging.
Advantages.
Non-invasive (CAT, MRI).
Provide very detailed knowledge about structure
(CAT, MRI) and function (PET, fMRI).
Disadvantages.
Mildly invasive (PET)
Only provide horizontal pictures (CAT)

3. Recording Electrical Activity

in the Brain.
Axons generate action potentials, and terminal
buttons elicit postsynaptic potentials.
These electrical events can be recorded, and
changes in electrical activity can be used to
determine whether a structure or region of the brain
is involved in a certain behaviour.
There are two types of measure:
a) Microelectrodes: Are very small and can record
electrical activity within single neurons (single-cell
recording).
These are normally implanted chronically into the
brain of an animal thus allowing the monitoring of
activity as the animal responds to particular
environmental stimuli.

Advantages/Disadvantages
of Microelectrodes.
Advantages.
Extremely precise.

Disadvantages.
Time consuming.
Too focused - it neglects neuronal interactions.
Invasive.

b) Macroelectrodes.
The Electroencephalogram (EEG) was invented by
Berger (1929).
Electrodes are attached to the scalp and the activity
of hundreds of thousands of neurons in the vicinity
of the electrodes recorded.
Active electrodes are placed over the site of
expected neural activity and an indifferent electrode
is placed at a neutral spot (usually the earlobe).
The recording simply measures the potential
difference between the two electrodes.
In clinical studies, many electrodes are used and
they are placed over the lobes of the brain
according to a conventional scheme.

The EEG Record.

Changes in electrical activity are evident in states such as
sleep, wakefulness, and arousal;abnormal electrical
activity can signal epilepsy or mental illness.
Each individuals EEG pattern is distinctive, but there are
characteristic patterns of electrical activity:
Alpha
waves
(8-13
Hz):
Associated
with
relaxed
wakefulness
Beta waves (13-30 Hz): Seen in individuals who are awake,
alert, with eyes open, and who may be concentrating on
something.
Delta waves (0.5-4 Hz): Associated sleep in adults but are
also seen in infants, their abnormal appearance in awake
adults can be indicative of a brain tumour.
Theta waves (4-7 Hz): Also seen in adults sleeping and in
children. Their abnormal appearance in adults is typically
seen in psychopaths.

Advantages/Disadvantages
of Macroelectrodes.
Advantages.
Non-invasive
Can differentiate between different
conditions or behavioural states.

neurological

Disadvantages.
Time consuming.
Very crude - the averaging of activity in many
neurons cannot establish precise activity in a
particular region.

Functional Near-Infrared
Spectroscopy (fNIRS)
Functional near-infrared (fNIR)
imaging is a spectroscopic method
for measuring the
level of
neuronal activity in the brain. The
method is based on neuro-vascular
coupling, that is, the relationship
between metabolic activity and
oxygen level (oxygenated
hemoglobin) in feeding blood
vessels.
There are three types of fNIR:
Continuous wave (CW )
Frequency domain (FD )
Time-resolved (TR )

Diffuse optical imaging

(DOI/DOT)
Diffuse optical imaging (DOI) or diffuse optical
tomography (DOT) is a medical imaging Technique
which uses near infrared light to generate images of
the brain/body.
The technique measures the optical absorption of
hemoglobin, and relies on the absorption spectrum of
hemoglobin varying with its oxygenation status.
High-density diffuse optical tomography (HD-DOT) has
seen setbacks due to limited resolution.
High temporal resolution (~100 ms)

Optical Coherence Tomography

(OCT)
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an optical signal
acquisition and processing method.
It captures micrometer-resolution, three-dimensional
images from within optical scattering media (e.g.,
biological tissue).
Optical coherence tomography is an interferometric
technique, typically employing near-infrared light. The
use of relatively long wavelength light allows it to
penetrate into the scattering medium.

4. Brain Stimulation.
In animals, direct electrical stimulation of the brain
can produce clear behavioural changes.
E.g stimulation of the hypothalamus may produce
feeding, drinking, sexual arousal, and aggression
suggesting an activational role.
Stimulation of the caudate nucleus often halts
ongoing behaviour which suggests an inhibitory
role.
In humans this technique was pioneered by Penfield
and Jasper (1954) in which they stimulated various
regions of cortex in conscious patients and noted
down the behavioural or sensory effects.

Electrical Stimulation of
the Human Brain

Carlson

(1994)

Advantages/Disadvantages
of Brain Stimulation.
Advantages.
Does not harm the brain.
A valid way of investigating living function of brain
areas.

Disadvantages.
Invasive.
Crude - not easy to tell how far the stimulation has
spread.

References and
Bibliography.
Carlson, N.R. (1994). Physiology of Behaviour.
Kalat, J.W. (2000). Biological Psychology.
Penfield, W., & Jasper, H. (1954). Epilepsy and the
functional anatomy of the human brain. Boston:
Little, Brown & Co.
Raichle, M.E. (1994). Imaging the mind: studies with
modern imaging techniques. Annual Review of
Psychology, 45: 333 - 356.
Rosenzweig, M.R., Breedlove, S.M., & Leiman, A.L.
(2002). Biological Psychology.
Toates, F. (2001). Biological Psychology.