Scaling Techniques

Some Key Concepts

Measurement
Assigning numbers or other symbols to
characteristics of objects being measured,
according to predetermined rules.

Concept (or Construct)

A generalized idea about a class of objects,
attributes, occurrences, or processes.
Relatively concrete constructs
Age, gender, number of children, education, income

Relatively abstract constructs

Brand loyalty, personality, channel power,
satisfaction

Some Key Concepts

Scaling
The generation of a continuum upon which
measured objects are located.

Scale
A quantifying measure a combination of
items that is progressively arranged
according to value or magnitude.
Purpose is to quantitatively represent an
items, persons, or events place in the
scaling continuum.

Primary Scales of Measurement

Primary
Scales

Nominal
Scale

Ratio
Scale
Ordinal
Scale

Interval
Scale

Primary Scales of Measurement

Nominal
A scale in which the numbers or
letters assigned to objects serve as
labels for identification or
classification.

Ordinal
A scale that arranges objects or
alternatives according to their
magnitude in an ordered
relationship.

Primary Scales of Measurement

Interval
A scale that both arranges objects
according to their magnitudes and
Distinguishes the ordered
arrangement in units of equal
intervals
I.e., indicate order and measure
order (or distance) in units of
equal intervals

Primary Scales of Measurement

Ratio
A scale that has absolute rather
than relative quantities and an
absolute zero where a given
attribute is absent.
Money & weight are good
examples of attributes that
possess absolute zeros and
interval properties.

Primary Scales of Measurement

Scale
Nominal

Numbers
Assigned
to Drivers/Cars

Ordinal

Rank Order
of race finishers

Third
Place

Interval

Championship
Points earned

170

175

185

Time to Finish,
behind winner

5.1

2.3

0.0

Ratio

31

Second
Place

88

First
Place

Classifying Scaling Techniques

Comparative Scales
Involve the direct
comparison of two or more
objects

Noncomparative Scales
Objects or stimuli are scaled
independently of each other.

Classifying Scaling Techniques

Scaling
Techniques
Noncomparative
Scales

Comparative
Scales

Paired
Comparison

Constant
Sum
Rank
Order

Continuous
Rating Scales

Itemized
Rating Scales

Likert

Stapel
Semantic
Differential

Comparative Scaling

Paired Comparison Scaling

Respondent is presented with two objects
at a time
Then asked to select one object in the pair
according to some criterion
Data obtained are ordinal in nature
Arranged or ranked in order of magnitude

Easy to do if only a few items are

compared.
If number of comparisons is too large,
respondents may become fatigued and no
longer carefully discriminate among them.

Paired Comparison Scaling: Example

For each pair of professors, please indicate the professor from whom
you prefer to take classes with a 1.
Cunningha
m
Cunningha
m

Day

Parker

Thomas

Day

Parker

Thomas

# of
times

Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with
several objects simultaneously
Then asked to order or rank them
according to some criterion.
Data obtained are ordinal in nature
Arranged or ranked in order of
magnitude

Commonly used to measure

preferences among brands and brand
attributes

Rank Order Scaling

Please rank the instructors listed below in order of preference. For the
instructor you prefer the most, assign a 1, assign a 2 to the instructor
you prefer the 2nd most, assign a 3 to the instructor that you prefer 3rd
most, and assign a 4 to the instructor that you prefer the least.

Instructor

Ranking

Cunningham

Day

Parker

Thomas

Constant Sum Scaling

Respondents are asked to allocate a
constant sum of units among a set
of stimulus objects with respect to
some criterion
Units allocated represent the
importance attached to the objects.
Data obtained are interval in nature
Allows for fine discrimination among
alternatives

Constant Sum Scaling

Listed below are 4 marketing professors, as well as 3 aspects that students
typically find important. For each aspect, please assign a number that reflects
how well you believe each instructor performs on the aspect. Higher numbers
represent higher scores. The total of all the instructors scores on an aspect should
equal 100.

Instructor

Availability

Fairness

Easy Tests

Cunningham

30

35

25

Day

30

25

25

Parker

25

25

25

Thomas

15

15

25

100

100

100

Sum Total

Non-Comparative Scaling

Classifying Noncomparative Scaling Techniques

Noncomparative
Rating Scales
Continuous
Rating Scales

Semantic
Differential

Itemized
Rating Scales

Stapel

Likert

Continuous Rating Scale

Example

Very
Poor
0

X
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Very
Good
100

Method of Summated Ratings:

The Likert Scale
Extremely popular means for
measuring attitudes.
Respondents indicate their own
attitudes by checking how strongly they
agree/disagree with statements.
Response alternatives:
strongly agree, agree, uncertain,
disagree, and strongly disagree.

Generally use either a 5- or 7-point

scale

Semantic Differential Scales

A series of numbered (usually
seven-point) bipolar rating scales.
Bipolar adjectives (for example,
good and bad), anchor both
ends (or poles) of the scale.
A weight is assigned to each
position on the rating scale.
Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3,
2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.

Semantic Differential Scales for

Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis
Exciting

___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm

Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull

Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex
Passive

___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

Stapel Scales
Modern versions of the Stapel scale place
a single adjective as a substitute for the
semantic differential when it is difficult to
create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
The advantage and disadvantages of a
Stapel scale, as well as the results, are
very similar to those for a semantic
differential.
However, the Stapel scale tends to be
easier to conduct and administer.

A Stapel Scale
for Measuring a Stores Image
Department
Store Name
+3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3

Graphic Rating Scales

A graphic rating scale presents

respondents with a graphic
continuum.

Graphic Rating Scale Stressing

Pictorial Visual Communications

3
Very
Good

1
Very
Poor

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

Balanced Scale
Surfing the Internet is

Unbalanced Scale
Surfing the Internet is

____ Extremely Good

____ Extremely Good

____ Very Good

____ Very Good

____ Good

____ Good

____ Bad

____ Somewhat Good

____ Very Bad

____ Bad

____ Extremely Bad

____ Very Bad

Summary of Itemized Rating Scale Decisions

1. Number of categories

While there is no single, optimal number, traditional guidelines

suggest that there should be between five and nine categories.

2. Balanced vs. unbalanced

3. Odd or even number of

categories

In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective data.

If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible for

at least some of the respondents, an odd number of categories
should be used.

Summary of Itemized Rating Scale Decisions (continued)

4. Forced versus nonforced

In situations where the respondents are expected

to have no opinion, the accuracy of data may be
improved by a nonforced scale.

5. Verbal description

An argument can be made for labeling all or many

scale categories. The category descriptions should
be located as close to the response categories as
possible.

6. Physical form

A number of options should be tried and the best

one selected.

Scale Evaluation
Scale
Evaluation
Validity

Reliability

Test-Retest
Alternative
Forms

Content
Internal
Consistency

Criterion
Construct
Convergent
Validity
Discriminant
Validity
Nomological
Validity

Reliability
Extent to which a scale produces
consistent results
Test-retest Reliability
Respondents are administered scales at 2
different times under nearly equivalent
conditions

Alternative-form Reliability
2 equivalent forms of a scale are
constructed, then tested with the same
respondents at 2 different times

Reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability
The consistency with which each item
represents the construct of interest
Used to assess the reliability of a summated
scale
Split-half Reliability
Items constituting the scale divided into 2 halves,
and resulting half scores are correlated

Coefficient alpha (most common test of

reliability)
Average of all possible split-half coefficients
resulting from different splittings of the scale
items

Validity
Extent to which true differences among the
objects are reflected on the characteristic being
measured
Content Validity
A.k.a., face validity
Subjective, but systematic evaluation of the
representativeness of the content of a scale for the
measuring task at hand

Criterion Validity
Examines whether measurement scale performs as
expected in relation to other variables selected as
meaningful criteria
I.e., predicted and actual behavior should be similar

Construct Validity
Addresses the question of what construct or
characteristic the scale is actually measuring
Convergent Validity
Extent to which scale correlates positively with other
measures of the same construct

Discriminant Validity
Extent to which a measure does not correlate with
other constructs from which it is supposed to differ

Nomological Validity
Extent to which scale correlates in theoretically
predicted ways with measures of different but
related constructs

Relationship Between Reliability and

Validity

A scale can be reliable, but not

valid
In order for a scale to valid, it
must also be reliable.
In other words,
Reliability is a necessary but
insufficient condition for Validity.

Reliability and Validity on Target

Old Rifle
Low Reliability

New Rifle
High Reliability

(Target A)

(Target B)

New Rifle Sunglare

Reliable but Not
Valid
(Target C)