Chapter 11 Excretion - Edited) 2

Chapter 11:Excretion
11.1 Structure and function of kidneys

a) Define excretion and explain the importance of removing
nitrogenous and other compounds from the body
(b) Outline the function of kidney tubules with reference to
ultra-filtration and selective reabsorption in the production
of urine
(c) Outline the role of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) in the
regulation of osmotic concentration
11.2 Kidney dialysis
(d) Outline the mechanism of dialysis in the case of kidney
failure
The process by which metabolic

waste products and toxic materials
are removed from the body of an
organism.
What is Metabolism?
The sum total of all the chemical reactions
taking place in living cells in order to keep
an organism alive.
Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism
Catabolism
Chemical reactions in which complex
substances are broken down into simpler
ones.
E.g. 1: Tissue respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O +6CO2 + 2898 kJ
E.g. 2: Deamination of proteins and amino
acids
Anabolism
Chemical reactions in which simpler
molecules are built up into complex
substances.
E.g. 1: Photosynthesis
E.g. 2: Formation of new proteins from
amino acids
E.g. 3: Conversion of glucose into glycogen
in the liver and muscles
Importance of Excretion
Metabolic reactions produce waste

products which are harmful if accumulated
in the body.
Excretory product
Excretory Remarks
organ
Carbon dioxide
Lungs
Gas in expired air
Mineral salts
Kidneys
Constituents of urine
Skin
Constituents of sweat, only

in small quantities for
nitrogenous waste
products
Excess water
Kidney
Skin
Lungs
Main constituent of urine

Main constituent of sweat
Water vapour in expired air
Bile pigments
(from haemoglobin breakdown)
Liver
Via the intestine
Nitrogenous waste products

- Mainly urea
-(from deamination of proteins)
- Creatinine
-(from muscle tissue breakdown)
- Uric acid
-(from breakdown of nuclear
materials)
Kidneys
Contains a lot of nephrons which remove urea and
excess water and heat from the blood to form urine
Responsible for osmoregulation
Ureter
Narrow tube through which urine flows from each
kidney to the urinary bladder (by peristalsis)
Urinary bladder
A hollow, distensible muscular bag which stores
urine temporarily
Renal pelvis
The enlarged portion of the ureter inside the kidney
Sphincter muscle
Contracts or relaxes to control the flow of urine into
the urethra
Urethra
Duct through which urine flows from the bladder to
the exterior
The Kidneys
A pair of dark red, bean-shaped organs
embedded in a mass of fat in the
abdominal cavity (just below the stomach,
but above the waistline).
They are attached to the dorsal body wall,
one on each side of the vertebral column.
The left kidney is slightly higher than the
right one.
Structure of the Kidney

Each kidney is
covered by an outer
layer of protective
cells called the fibrous
capsule.
It has two main
regions:
Structure of the Kidney

a. Cortex: the outer dark
red region.
b. Medulla: the inner
thicker pale red
region. In man, it
consists of 12-16
conical structures, the
pyramids.
Structure of a Kidney Tubule - The

Nephron
The functional unit of the kidney.
About 1 million of them in each kidney.
Each is about 3 cm in length.
(Total length: about 60 km)
Kidney Tubule - The Nephron

Each kidney tubule
(nephron) begins in
the cortex as a cuplike structure called
the renal (Bowmans)
capsule.
The capsule leads
into the first
(proximal) convoluted
tubule.

It then straightens out
as it passes into the
medulla, make a Uturn and passes back
into the cortex where
it becomes coiled
again (second or
distal convoluted
tubule).

It then opens into a
collecting tubule/duct
and eventually opens
into the renal pelvis.
The U-shaped portion
of the tubule in the
medulla is known as
the loop of Henle.

Blood enters the
kidney by the renal
artery which gives off
numerous branches
or arterioles.
Each branch breaks
up into a mass of
blood capillaries in
the renal capsule.

This mass of blood
capillaries is called
the glomerulus.
The renal capsule
with its glomerulus is
called the renal /
Malpighian corpuscle.

Blood leaving the
glomerulus enters
blood capillaries
surrounding the tubule.
These blood capillaries
then unite to form
venules, which in turn
join to form a branch of
the renal vein.
Associated blood vessels
Renal Arteries
Renal Veins
Bring
oxygenated
blood containing
urea, excess
water and heat to
kidneys
Take away
deoxygenated blood
(from which urea,
excess water and
heat have been
removed) from the
kidneys.
How Blood Enters the Kidney Tubule

October 11, 2016
How blood enters the kidney tubule
Blood enters
1 the kidney
via the renal
artery
branch
of renal
artery
1
Copyright 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.
October 11, 2016
24
Renal artery
branches into
many
arterioles
afferent arteriole
1 Blood enters
the kidney via

the renal
artery
2
1
October 11, 2016
25
Renal artery
branches into
many
arterioles
3
3
glomerulus
Blood enters
the kidney
via the renal
artery
Arterioles
further divide
into a mass of
blood
capillaries
(glomerulus)
2
1
October 11, 2016
26
Renal artery
branches into
many
arterioles
Blood enters
the kidney
via the renal
artery
3
3
Malpighian
corpuscle
4
Arterioles
further divide
into a mass of
blood
capillaries
(glomerulus)
1
4
Blood leaves
Malpighian
corpuscle and
enters tubule
collecting tubule/duct
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27

3 Arterioles
2 Renal artery
branches into
many arterioles
1 Blood enters
the kidney via

the renal artery
further divide
into a mass of
blood
capillaries
(glomerulus)
4 Blood leaves
Malpighian
corpuscle and
enters tubule
1
5
5
venule
Blood
capillaries
unite to
form
venules
October 11, 2016
28

3 Arterioles
2 Renal artery
branches into
many arterioles
1 Blood enters
the kidney via

the renal artery
further divide
into a mass of
blood
capillaries
(glomerulus)
2
1
6
branch of
renal vein
4 Blood leaves
Malpighian
corpuscle and
enters tubule
5 Blood
capillaries
unite to form
venules
6
Venules join to
form renal vein
October 11, 2016
29

3 Arterioles
2 Renal artery
branches into
many arterioles
1 Blood enters
the kidney via

the renal artery
Blood exits
the kidney
via the renal
vein
2
1
7
7
further divide
into a mass of
blood
capillaries
(glomerulus)
branch of
renal vein
4 Blood leaves
Malpighian
corpuscle and
enters tubule
5 Blood
capillaries
unite to form
venules
6 Venules join to
form renal vein

October 11, 2016
30
Urine Formation
Two main processes are involved:
Ultrafiltration of small molecules from the
blood.
Selective reabsorption of useful
materials.
Ultrafiltration
Blood passes from the renal artery into
the glomeruli in the renal capsules.
Mechanical filtration occurs in each
glomerulus.
Blood plasma is forced out of the
glomerular blood capillaries into the renal
capsule.
Ultrafiltration
The afferent arteriole that brings blood into the
glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole
that carries blood away.
A high pressure is built up in the glomerulus,
squeezing the blood through two living
membranes: the capillary wall of the glomerulus
(partially permeable membrane) and the inner
wall of the renal capsule.
It is this blood pressure that provides the main
force required for the filtration process.
Why is it called Ultrafiltration?

It is caused by very high blood pressure.
The membrane around the glomerular
blood capillaries is like a very fine filter.
Only very small molecules are filtered off
the blood. These include water, mineral
salts, glucose and urea.
Most proteins and fats are too big, so they
stay in the blood, together with the blood
cells.
Ultrafiltration
In human, the kidneys filter about 60 litres
of blood an hour, and it takes only 5
minutes to filter an amount which is equal
to the bodys entire blood supply (5 litres).
The filtration process produces about 7.5
litres of glomerulus filtrate an hour, and
this liquid contains not only urea, but many
useful substances (e.g. glucose).
Ultrafiltration
If all of this is excreted, the body would
lose most of its water and soluble food
supplies in a few hours.
However, this does not happen because
99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed.
How urine is formed
Selective Reabsorption
This takes place in the kidney tubules /
nephrons.
The useful materials are taken back into
the blood stream through the capillaries
which surround the tubules.
Selective Reabsorption at the

Proximal Convoluted Tubule
These include all the glucose, amino
acids and most mineral salts.
It is by diffusion and active transport.
Most of the water is reabsorbed by
osmosis back into the blood stream
(through surrounding blood capillaries).
Selective Reabsorption at the Loop of

Henle and Distal Convoluted Tubule
Some of the water is reabsorbed back into
the blood stream (through surrounding
blood capillaries).

Distal Convoluted Tubule
Some salts are reabsorbed.

Conducting Duct
Some water is reabsorbed.
Selective Reabsorption
Excess water, mineral salts, and
nitrogenous wastes (e.g. urea, uric acid
and creatinine) pass out of the collecting
duct into the renal pelvis as urine.
Per 100 cm3

Water
96.0g
Mineral salts (mainly sodium chloride)
1.8g
Urea
2.0g
Other nitrogenous substances
0.2g
Total
100.0g
Composition of urine
Varies depending on several factors: Rich protein diet higher content of urea
Heavy sugary food in the diet some sugar in urine
Larger intake of fluid urine lighter in colour ; more
urine
Cold weather (less sweat) more urine
Salty food in the diet excess salt excreted in urine
Abnormal situation
Sugar diabetes (diabetes mellitus) large amounts of
glucose in urine
Kidneys as Osmoregulators
The water potential of the blood has to be
kept relatively constant.
If the blood plasma is too dilute, water will
enter the blood cells by osmosis and the
blood cells will swell and burst.
If the blood plasma is too concentrated,
water will leave the blood cells by osmosis
and the blood cells will become
dehydrated and shrink (may be fatal).
Kidneys as Osmoregulators
The water potential of the blood depends
on the amount of water and salts in the
plasma.
Kidneys help to regulate the water or salt
concentration in the blood, thus
maintaining a constant water potential in
the body.
Osmoregulation by kidneys an
example of Homeostasis
If the water content of the blood is lower
than usual (through heavy perspiration),
the additional quantities of water needed
are taken in through the tubule. How?
Hypothalamus of the brain produces
vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone
(ADH).
Dehydration of the body is detected by
the hypothalamus.
The pituitary gland is stimulated to
release ADH into bloodstream to
increase the water reabsorption by the
kidney tubules.
Water content of the blood is thus
restored.
Urine production drops and urine
becomes more concentrated.
If the blood becomes too diluted (large
intake of water), the secretion of ADH is
inhibited.
The tubules will reabsorb less water.
Urine production increases and urine
becomes less concentrated.
Summary of the Functions

Excretion of metabolic wastes, especially
the nitrogenous wastes (e.g. urea), &
excess water, mineral salts.
Regulation of composition of the blood
plasma by the selective reabsorption of
useful substances (salts and water) along
the kidney tubules.

Regulating the water content (see
osmoregulation).
Regulating the salt content.
If there is too much sodium chloride in
the plasma, less of them is reabsorbed
from the glomerulus filtrate.

Regulating the pH of the blood to be
around pH 7.3 to 7.4 by the exchange of
ions when the acidity or alkalinity of the
blood tends to rise.
(pH of urine can vary from 4.5 8.5).
Kidney Failure
High blood pressure and diabetes are
common causes of kidney failures.
A person can still lead a normal life if only
one kidney fails to function.
But if both kidneys fail to work, urea and
other wastes will accumulate in the blood.
The patient can die unless prompt medical
treatment is given.
Treatment: Dialysis or kidney transplant.
Dialysis or Kidney Machine

What the kidney performs by ultrafiltration
and selective reabsorption, a kidney
machine performs in one step diffusion.
Blood is drawn from an artery in the
patients arm and allowed to be pumped
through the tubing in the dialysis machine.

The tubing is bathed in a dialysis fluid
which contains the same concentration of
essential substances (e.g. mineral salts)
as the blood, but without metabolic waste
products.
The walls of the tubing are partially
permeable.

Substances pass from a higher concentration
to a lower concentration along a
concentration gradient through this
membrane (dialysis membrane).
Since there is no urea, uric acid and
creatinine in the dialysis fluid, they diffuse out
of the tubing into the dialysis fluid. Excess
water and mineral salts also diffuse out of the
tubing. These waste products are thus
removed from the blood.

Big molecules like proteins and blood
cells remain in the blood.
This process is called dialysis, hence the
name dialysis machine.

Other points to take note:
The tubing is narrow, long and coiled to
increase the surface area to volume ratio.
This speeds up the rate of exchange of
substances between the blood and the
dialysis fluid.

The direction of blood flow is opposite to
the flow of the dialysis fluid. This maintains
the concentration/diffusion gradient for the
removal of waste products.
The filtered blood is then returned to a
vein in the patients arm.

The patient needs to be treated about 2-3
times a week. Each treatment takes
several hours.
Exchange of Substances between the Blood and the

Dialysis Fluid
October 11, 2016

Dialysis Fluid
Patients blood
enters dialysis
machine
dialysis machine
partially
permeable
membrane
patients blood
1
dialysis
fluid
essential
mineral salt
October 11, 2016
68

Dialysis Fluid
Patients blood
enters dialysis
machine
urea molecule
dialysis machine
partially
permeable
membrane
patients blood
1
dialysis
fluid
2
dialysis fluid
red blood cell
protein essential
molecule mineral salt
Blood flows in the opposite

direction to flow of dialysis fluid
October 11, 2016
69

Dialysis Fluid
Dialysis fluid contains the same concentration
of essential substances as blood. No metabolic
wastes present.
Patients blood
enters dialysis
machine
urea molecule
dialysis machine
partially
permeable
membrane
patients blood
1
dialysis
fluid
2
dialysis fluid
red blood cell
protein essential

October 11, 2016
70

Dialysis Fluid
Dialysis fluid contains the same
concentration of essential substances
as blood. No metabolic wastes present
Patients blood
enters dialysis
machine
urea molecule
dialysis machine
partially
permeable
membrane
patients blood
1
dialysis
fluid
3
red blood cell
protein essential

2
dialysis fluid
Concentration
gradient set up
between dialysis
fluid and blood
October 11, 2016
71

Dialysis Fluid
Patients blood
enters dialysis
machine
dialysis machine
partially
permeable
membrane
patients blood
1
4
dialysis fluid with
waste products
dialysis
fluid
3
urea
molecule
Removal of
metabolic waste
products from
the blood
2
dialysis fluid
red blood cell

protein essential

Concentration
gradient set up
between dialysis
fluid and blood
October 11, 2016
72

Dialysis Fluid
Patients blood
enters dialysis
machine
dialysis machine
partially
permeable
membrane
patients blood
1
4
dialysis fluid with
waste products
Removal of
metabolic
waste products
from the blood
dialysis
fluid
Filtered
blood is
returned to
the patient
filtered blood
5
3
urea
molecule
2
dialysis fluid
red blood cell

protein essential

Concentration
gradient set up
between dialysis
fluid and blood
October 11, 2016
73
How Is Blood Cleaned in a Dialysis Machine?
Blood is
drawn from
an artery in
the patients
arm
artery
October 11, 2016
74

1 Blood is drawn
artery
from an artery in
the patients arm
2
dialysis tubing
Blood is
pumped
through a
tubing to
the dialysis
machine
pump
dialysis
fluid
fresh dialysis
fluid
dialysis
machine
October 11, 2016
75

1 Blood is drawn
artery
2 Blood is pumped
from an artery in
the patients arm
through a tubing
to the dialysis
machine
2
dialysis tubing
pump
dialysis
fluid
fresh dialysis
fluid
dialysis
3 machine
The tubing is
bathed in a
special
dialysis fluid
and the tubing
is semipermeable
October 11, 2016
76

1 Blood is drawn
artery
2 Blood is pumped
from an artery in
the patients arm
through a tubing
to the dialysis
machine
2
dialysis tubing
3 The tubing is bathed
in a special dialysis
fluid and the tubing
is semi-permeable
pump
dialysis
fluid
4
fresh dialysis
fluid
dialysis
3 machine
Small molecules
(e.g. urea) and
metabolic waste
products diffuse
out of the tubing
October 11, 2016
77

1 Blood is drawn
artery
2 Blood is pumped
from an artery in
the patients arm
through a tubing
to the dialysis
machine
2
dialysis tubing
Larger
molecules
(e.g.
platelets and
blood cells)
remain in the
tubing

4
pump
dialysis
fluid
is semi-permeable
5
4 Small molecules
fresh dialysis
fluid
dialysis
3 machine
(e.g. urea) and

metabolic waste
products diffuse
out of the tubing
October 11, 2016
78
1 Blood is drawn
artery
2 Blood is pumped
from an artery in
the patients arm
The filtered
blood is
returned to a
vein in the
patients arm
5 Larger molecules
(e.g. plates and

blood cells)
remain in the
tubing
vein
through a tubing
to the dialysis
machine
2
dialysis tubing

4
pump
dialysis
fluid
is semi-permeable
filtered
blood
4 Small molecules
fresh dialysis
fluid
dialysis
3 machine
(e.g. urea) and

metabolic waste
products diffuse
out of the tubing
October 11, 2016
79
Excretion
is a process by which metabolic waste products and
toxic materials are removed from an organisms body
October 11, 2016
81
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
October 11, 2016
82
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
October 11, 2016
83
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Excrete carbon dioxide
and water (water vapour)
October 11, 2016
84
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

October 11, 2016
85
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
October 11, 2016
86
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Cortex
Medulla consisting of pyramids and renal
pelvis. In each pyramid there are numerous
tubules (nephrons)
October 11, 2016
87
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Cortex
Medulla consisting of pyramids and renal
pelvis. In each pyramid there are numerous
tubules (nephrons)
Each nephron consists of:
The renal (Bowmans capsule containing
the glomerulus
The proximal convoluted tubule
The loop of Henl
The distal convoluted tubule
October 11, 2016
88
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
October 11, 2016
89
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
October 11, 2016
90
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Small molecules removed from

blood in ultrafiltration
Useful substances taken back in
selective reabsorption
Metabolic waste products like
urea excreted
October 11, 2016
91
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
October 11, 2016
92
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
The regulation of the water or salt concentration in

the blood to maintain a constant water potential
October 11, 2016
93
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
The regulation of the water or salt concentration in

the blood to maintain a constant water potential
ADH secreted by the pituitary gland controls the
amount of water reabsorbed by the kidney tubules.
October 11, 2016
94
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of
composition
of blood plasma
October 11, 2016
95
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of
composition
of blood plasma
Selective reabsorption
of useful substances
along kidney tubules
October 11, 2016
96
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of
composition
of blood plasma
Kidney dialysis
October 11, 2016
97
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of
composition
of blood plasma
Kidney dialysis
In the case of kidney failure, blood is drawn out, cleaned
in a dialysis machine and returned to the patient
October 11, 2016
98
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys
Liver

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of
composition
of blood plasma
Kidney dialysis
October 11, 2016
99
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys
Liver
Excrete bile via
the intestines

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of
composition
of blood plasma
Kidney dialysis
October 11, 2016
100
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys
Liver
Skin
Excrete bile via

the intestines

Structure
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of
composition
of blood plasma
Kidney dialysis
October 11, 2016
101
Excretion
is carried out by
Excretory Organs
Lungs
Kidneys
Liver
Excrete bile via
the intestines

Structure
Skin
Produces and removes
sweat containing waste
products, e.g. creatinine
Functions
Excretion
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of
composition
of blood plasma
Kidney dialysis
October 11, 2016
102

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Chapter 11 Excretion - Edited) 2

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Chapter 11:Excretion

11.1 Structure and function of kidneys

The process by which metabolic

Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism

Metabolic reactions produce waste

Gas in expired air

Constituents of sweat, only

Main constituent of urine

Via the intestine

Nitrogenous waste products

Structure of the Kidney

Structure of the Kidney

Structure of a Kidney Tubule - The

Kidney Tubule - The Nephron

Kidney Tubule - The Nephron

Kidney Tubule - The Nephron

Kidney Tubule - The Nephron

Kidney Tubule - The Nephron

Kidney Tubule - The Nephron

Associated blood vessels

How Blood Enters the Kidney Tubule

How blood enters the kidney tubule

Copyright 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

October 11, 2016

How blood enters the kidney tubule

the kidney via

Copyright 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

October 11, 2016

How blood enters the kidney tubule

Copyright 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

October 11, 2016

How blood enters the kidney tubule

October 11, 2016

How blood enters the kidney tubule

the kidney via

Copyright 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

October 11, 2016

How blood enters the kidney tubule

the kidney via

Copyright 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

October 11, 2016

How blood enters the kidney tubule

the kidney via

form renal vein

October 11, 2016

Why is it called Ultrafiltration?

How urine is formed

Selective Reabsorption at the

Selective Reabsorption at the Loop of

Selective Reabsorption at the

Selective Reabsorption at the

Per 100 cm3

Mineral salts (mainly sodium chloride)

Other nitrogenous substances

Summary of the Functions

Summary of the Functions

Summary of the Functions

Dialysis or Kidney Machine

Dialysis or Kidney Machine

Dialysis or Kidney Machine

Dialysis or Kidney Machine

Dialysis or Kidney Machine

Dialysis or Kidney Machine