Lecture-1

Prepared by:

Abdul Hasib
Lecture, IICT
BUET

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth

Time domain (examining the signal over time):

Continuous signal - signal with no breaks or discontinuities
Discrete signal - signal with a finite number of values
Amplitude - the instantaneous value of a signal
Frequency - inverse of the period in cycles per second, Hertz
Phase - measure of relative position in time within a single
period
Data Communication and Computer Networks

Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth

Audio signal

Digital signal

Frequency Domain (signal viewed as a function of

frequency):
any signal is made up of components at various frequencies,
each sinusoid
Spectrum- the range of frequencies in a signal
Absolute bandwidth - is the width of the spectrum (fn - f1)
where, fn is largest frequency in signal and f1 is the smallest
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Signal Strength
Effective bandwidth (bandwidth) - width of spectrum
containing most of the energy in the signal
Signal strength gain, losses and relative levels are expressed in decibels:
Decibel measure difference in two power levels:

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Communication mode
Point-to-point - if direct link is shared between only two
devices
Multipoint - if direct link shared between multiple devices
Simplex- one way transmission (commercial radio/TV)
Half-duplex - one way transmission at a time, endpoints take
turns
Full-Duplex - simultaneous two way transmission
NOTE: These are US (ANSI) definitions, in Europe (CCITT)
simplex refers to half-duplex and duplex to full-duplex

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Data versus signal

Data: Convey meaning within a computer (stored in files)
Need to be converted into a signal before transfer
Signals: Electric or electromagnetic encoding of data
Networks and communication systems transmit signals
Data and signal can be analog or digital
Analog information can be audio or video
Digital information is binary

Issues related to the transmission of signals

Impairments (also transmission flaws)
Capacity of the media
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Analog to Digital Conversion : Why?

Digital Technology :

a. VLSI, LSI
b. lower cost

Data Integrity : Use repeaters instead of amplifiers

=> Noise not accumulated, i.e., transmit data
for longer distance
Capacity utilization : More easily to multiplex digital data than analog
Security and privacy
Integration : integrate voice , data ( when digitize analog data)

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Modulation and Encoding schemes

Modulation:

Encoding:

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Conversion
Encoding:
Digital data to digital signal : less complex and less expensive equipment than
analog modulation equipment
Analog data to digital signal : To use the modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Modulation:
Digital data to analog signal : Some transmission media can propagate analog
signals only. Example: fibre , wire
Analog data to analog signal :
1. Transmit baseband signal over wire transmission (Microwave)
=> Low frequency baseband means few kilometer antenna !!!
2. shift baseband signals of several voice channel (FDM)
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Digital data , Digital signals

Factors to improve receiving data:
Decrease data rate => decrease error rate
Increase S/N ratio => decrease bit error rate
Increase bandwidth => Increase data rate

Digital signal encoding formats:

Nonreturn-to-zero-level (NRZ-L)
Nonreturn-to-zero Interted (NRZI)
Bipolar-AMI
Manchester
Differential Manchester etc.

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Digital signal encoding formats

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Analog Data, Digital Signals

Codec : Coder decoder
Device to convert analog to digital and digital to analog at
transmitting and receiving side
Sampling Theorem : If a signal f(t) is sampled at a regular intervals of time
and at a rate higher than twice the highest significant signal frequency, then
the samples contains all the information of the original signal.
example: voice data < 4000Hz, then 8000 samples/sec (Nyquist formula)
Data Rate:

C = capacity or data transfer rate in bps

B = bandwidth (in hertz)
M = number of possible signaling levels
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Analog to Digital Conversion (PCM)

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Modulation
The process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal with frequency f.
Three basic modulation technique:
-> Amplitude
-> Frequency
-> Phase
Baseband signal :
Input signal (digital or analog) to modulator.

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Digital data, Analog signals

Transmitting digital data through public telephone network (0.3 - 3.4 KHz)
Example : Modem (modulator, demodulator)
Digital Modulation techniques:
1. Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK):
amplitude of carrier freqency vary betwwen two level
susceptible to sudden gain changes and is rather inefficient technique
up to 1200 bps on voice-grade lines

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Digital Modulation techniques:

2. Frequency-Shift Key (FSK)
s(t) =

A cos(2 f1 t + Qc)

binary 1

A cos(2 f2 t + qc)

binary 0

f1 and f2 are carrier frequency

Used in early low bit modem

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Digital Modulation techniques

3. Phase Shift Key (PSK)
The phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data

M=2

Fig: Phase coherent PSK

Zero : represented by a signal with the same phase of the preceding one
One: represent by signal of opposite phase (180 shift)to the preceding one

Disadvantage: - Reference carrier signal phase is required at the recever

- Bit rate= Signalling rate
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Analog Data, Analog Signals

Techniques:
AM, FM, and PM
Amplitude Modulation

Baseband
signal sm

Bandpass signal
sm ( t ) cos 2f c t

Carrier
cos( 2f c t )
Figure 7.2: amplitude modulation of a sinusoidal carrier by the baseband PAM signal

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Amplitude-modulation.

W 0
- fc
-W

fc

Gr ( f )

W r

Um ( f )
1
2

fc +
fc f
- fc
W
W
+W
c
Figure: Spectra of (a) baseband and (b) amplitude-modulated signal.

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Analog Modulation Techniques

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Simple switching network

end node
Network node
-- provide routing

Purpose:
- provide interconnection between all the nodes on a network without
the need for single connections between each pair of nodes
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Digital Telephone Networks, Mobile Networks

Circuit switched of fixed bit rate (n x 64 kbps / 13 kbps)

Connection oriented
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Public switched telephone network (PSTN)

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Circuit Switching (CS)

Communication in which a dedicated communications path is
established between two devices through one or more intermediate
switching nodes
Dominant in both voice and data communications today (PSTN is
a circuit-switched network)
Relatively inefficient (100% dedication even without 100%
utilization)
Three stages:
Circuit establishment
Transfer of information
Circuit disconnect
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Circuit-Switching Stages
Circuit establishment
Based on routing information
Transfer of information
Point-to-point from endpoints to node
Internal switching among nodes
Usually a full-duplex connection throughout
Circuit disconnect
Signal initiated by one of the stations and propagated
to used nodes to de-allocate the dedicated resources

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Example: space division switch

The interconnection of network
consists of a rectangular matrix
of cross-points

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Multiplexing

Multiplexing provides a mechanism to share the use of a common

channel or circuit by two or more devices.
Multiplexing minimizes number of transmission lines.

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Type of multiplexer
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplex)
TDM (Time Division Multiplex)
WDM (Wave Length division Multiplex)
CDM (Code division Multiplex)

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Frequency Division Multiplex

FDM is a broadband analog transmission technique.

Each data signal is modulated onto a carrier with a different
frequency
All signal travel simultaneously over a channel.
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Time Division Multiplex

TDM is a base-band technique.

Individuals circuit are identified by their position in a stream.
Analog inputs are digitized using PCM
Digitized information are insert into the pre-allocated, fixed timing
called timed slot.
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Wave Length division Multiplex

Used for photonic communication.
Realised by laser modulation of different wave length.
Superposition of optical signals of different channels on one fibre

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Code division Multiplex

Each channel uses a different code sequence for modulation
Codes are mutually orthogonal
Spread spectrum technique
Multiplexing is acheived by superposition of the products of
the signal with their code.

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Digital Carrier Systems

T-carrier
North America,Japan
E-carrier
Europe,South America
SONET/SDH
world-wide new standard

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E1-frame
30 voice channels+2 control channels

E1 bit rate :(32x8 bit)/125 microsec =2.048M

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Transfer Modes
The type of switching depends on connection nature.
Transfer modes:
-Circuit Switching (CS)
-Packet switching

Problems of Circuit Switch:

- Collisions: when more than one inputs are destined for the same output.

- Blocking: when the progress of one message through the network is

stopped

by a message that is not destined for the same output.

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Local Area Networks (LAN)

Connectionless
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Internet

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Alternate Routing

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Packet-Switching
Data is broken into packets, each of which can be routed separately
Datagram
Connectionless service
Individual packets can follow different routes
Packets can arrive out of sequence and are reassembled on the destination
host.

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Packet Switching
Virtual Circuit
Establishes an end-to-end circuit between the sender and receiver
All packets for that transmission take the same route over the virtual
circuit
Similar to circuit switching, but the circuit is not dedicated

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Packet-Switching Networks:Pros and Cons

Advantages:
Better line efficiency,
Signals can always be routed
Prioritization option

Disadvantages:
Transmission delay in nodes,
Variable delays can cause jitter
Extra overhead for packet addresses

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Example: Virtual Connection

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Development of Internet Hosts and Web

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Internet History
Arpanet
1960s : studies of packet switching
1980-1983: Introduction of TCP/IP
1989: first proposal for Web (Tim Berners, Robert Cailliau)
1994: Internet known to public
Everything over IP, IP over everything

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Arpanet History

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Growth
Number of users
Traffic demand per application
Web item sizes (imazes, java applets, audio, video)
New applications
Access line bit rate
Number of servers
Penetration into leisure / entertainment sector

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Worldwide Ranks

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Challenges
Connectivety:
connecting various systems to support communication among
disparate technologies

reliability
network management:
must provide centralized support and troubleshooting capabilities
configuration, security, performance

flexibility:
to change with new demands.

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Standardization Body
create formal standards by:
organizing ideas
discussing the approach
developing draft standards
voting on draft
formally releasing the completed standard to the public
Internet Activities Board (IAB):
discuss issues pertinent to the Internet and set Internet policies through
decisions and task forces. The IAB designates some Request For
Comments (RFC) documents as Internet standards, including Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and the Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP).
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Standardization Body

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Towards a global information infrastructure

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Applications for Broadband Infrastructure

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Transmission impairment
Damage caused to signal during transmission
Impairments exist in all forms of data transmission
Analog signal impairments degrade the signal quality
Digital signal impairments result in bit errors (1s and 0s
transposed)

Type of impairment depends on type of media used

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Categories of transmission media

Conducted or guided media

Use a conductor to move the signal from sender
to receiver
TP, Coax and fiber optic cable

Wireless or unguided media

Use radio waves at different set of frequencies to
move the signal from sender to receiver
Microwaves, radio frequencies, infrared light
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Transmission Impairments:Guided media

Attenuation: Loss (in dB) of signal strength over distance
Prevention: Repeater or amplifier
Noise: Distortion caused by interference from external sources
Prevention: Depends on type of noise

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Transmission Impairments: Wireless media

Free-Space Loss : Attenuation due to distance
Atmospheric Absorption: Attenuation due to atmospheric
conditions (humidity)
Multi-path: Due to lack of direct line of sight path. Obstacles
reflect signal (creating multiple copies) or block it (no
signal)
Thermal noise: Due to thermal activity of devices used for
transmission

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Channel capacity
Determine the rate at which data can be transmitted
over a given path, under given conditions
Network designers must deal with.

Data rate: in bps

Bandwidth: in Hz
Noise: Average level of noise
Error rate: rate at which errors occur
Packet loss
Packet delay

and manage to get the highest data rate possible

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Frequency spectrum for transmission media

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Implications
for networking
Media
selection:

Type of network: LAN v/s WAN

Cost: Varies depending on media and is evolving
Transmission distance: Varies depending on media and is evolving
Security: Wireless less secure (signal can be intercepted)
Error rates: Highest with wireless (more susceptible to interference)
Transmission speeds:Varies depending on media and is evolving

Design factors for transmission media

Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater the
bandwidth of a signal, the higher the data rate
Number of receivers: Each attachment introduces some attenuation
and distortion, limiting distance and/or data rate
Transmission impairments: Limit the distance a signal can travel
Data Communication and Computer Networks

Thank you

Data Communication and Computer Networks