Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Engineering
Petroleum Professor
Collins
Nwaneri
Introduction
What is a Reservoir?
- It is a formation of one or more rock formations
that contains liquid and/or gaseous
hydrocarbons.
- It is mostly of sedimentary rock origin, with few
exceptions.
- Reservoir rocks are porous and permeable; and
bounded by impermeable barriers which trap
hydrocarbons.
- Vertical arrangement of fluids in a reservoir is
governed by gravitational forces i.e. Gas-OilWater.
Introduction
A reservoir is also defined as an invisible and
complex physical system (porous medium) that
must be thoroughly analyzed for vital information.
Introduction
The following must be estimated from reservoirs, with the aim
of optimal profitability for a given project.
1. Hydrocarbon (Oil and/or gas) in place.
2. Recoverable reserves (estimated on the basis of several
alternative production methods).
3. Well production potential (Initial productivity, and changes).
. Reservoir engineering can involve the use of partial data,
furnished by wells and therefore is incomplete and insufficient.
-. This data is extrapolated over an extended area to compile a
synthetic image of the reservoir.
-. Fairly reliable production forecast can be made from this
reservoir image in the near future and much less for a distant
future.
-. The forecast are then used to make an optimum development
scheme.
Introduction
Below is a diagram that shows the
different steps in reservoir
engineering. (Fig. 1)
Introduction
Reservoir Image:
- This is defined when the forms, boundaries,
internal architecture (heterogeneities), and
distribution and volumes of fluids contained in a
reservoir are known or at least, to start with
approximated.
The methods used to define a reservoir image
are based on petroleum geology and geophysics.
The following techniques are used in drawing up
a reservoir image:
1. Direct analysis: Core and PVT analysis of fluids
(pressure, volume, temperature). The
measurements are done in a laboratory.
Introduction
2. Indirect analysis: Well logging. (Recorded during
drilling and production to obtain vital data on
lithology, porosity and fluid saturations.
Note: Indirect analysis has a larger surface area of
investigation compared to core analysis (direct
analysis).
Well Characteristics:
- A well production potential is another way to assess
the value of a discovered reservoir.
Well testing is used to asses the production potential
of a reservoir and it involves the measurement of:
Surface flow rates; and surface and downhole fluid
pressures.
Introduction
Well testing can also be used to get
reservoir information such as:
average permeability. (up to several
hundred meters around a well). In
addition, different layers, fractured
formations or barriers may be found
in a reservoir.
Note: The later test above can help in
the selection of the right well
completion procedure for production.
Introduction
Recovery Mechanisms:
- Fluid withdrawal from wells lowers the pressure of
the remaining fluids in a reservoir.
- The relative permeability that breaks down flow
capacities between fluids (oil/gas/water) as a
function of saturation helps generalize a simple one
phase flow condition compared to complex
multiphase flow conditions.
- The knowledge of fluids in a reservoir and its
heterogeneities helps to determine the mechanism
that causes fluid displacement towards wells by
natural drive (primary recovery).
Introduction
Recovery rates from wells depends
on the type of reservoir and fluids.
Recovery rate can be from as
average of 25% oil or as high as 75%
or more for gas of the reservoir
volume in place.
Reserves means the recoverable
volumes that appears to be
producible.
Reserves = Volumes in place x
Introduction
Secondary or artificial recovery methods are used if
a reservoirs primary recovery (natural drive) does
not allow for good oil production or to accelerate
production.
- This methods can consist of water injection or use of
associated gas (gas injection or gas lift).
Improved or enhanced oil recovery can be used, if
profitable, to further produce the oil left in the
reservoir. This can be after the application of
secondary recovery, since the recovery is rarely
above 40%.
- This methods include CO2 injection or addition of
chemicals to water, and thermal methods (i.e.
steam injection or in-situ injection) for heavy oils.
Introduction
See the Dig. On the Mechanism of primary
recovery. (Fig. 2)
Introduction
Reservoir studies characterizes:
Introduction
Uncertainties:
- Involves the concept of using new approaches
in the analysis and use of small data from large
data set, which represents an infinitesimal
portion of an actual reservoir space.
- Possible margins in errors in oil and gas
volume in place (N and G); and oil and gas
production forecasts (Np and Gp)
consequences must be established to account
in the uncertainties.
Introduction
Simulation of Reservoir
Production:
- Involves the use of computer that
allows a much more accurate
reservoir simulation by discretization
of a reservoir in space and time.
- This simulation model integrates
specific reservoir data and laws
governing flow in porous medium to
form a complex reservoir numerical
Introduction
Development of a Project, Optimization:
- Development plans such as: number of wells, location,
injection, e.tc on simulation models are compared.
- Initial choices takes account of related techniques, such
as well and surface production and economic data.
- The forecast helps assess probable future production,
which leads to anticipated income and it is compared to
capital investments i.e. drilling, completion etc.., and
operating cost. At the end the configuration with the best
rate of return is chosen.
- Reservoir studies involve three phases in this order:
Analytical; synthesis and forecasting.
- Each phase can be repeated as a new well is drilled,
during development phase and throughout the reservoir
life.
Introduction
A Reservoir studies sample. (Fig. 3)
Introduction
The Place of Reservoir Engineering in
Production:
Introduction
Fig.4
19
Goals:
Fig.
5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig:8
Definitions:
A reservoir is a porous and permeable subsoil
formation that contains hydrocarbons (Oil and/or
gas).
It is surrounded by impermeable rocks and often by
aquifer barrier.
Has only one natural pressure system.
Reservoirs have lithology layers.
They consist of one or more superimposed or lateral
nearby porous pools, which may contain oil, gas or
both fluids superimposed.
Traps:
Fig. 9
Principles:
Fig. 10
Detection of Fluids:
Seismic surveying image can be used in fluid detection based on
acoustic impedance contrast between gas zones, cap rocks, or
between gas (or oil) zone and the aquifer to create different marked
reflections called bright spots, flat spots and pull-downs as per each
specific case.
Acoustic impendence is based on decreases in the apparent density
of the reservoir and in acoustic propagation velocities due to the
presence of gas (and, to a lesser degreed oil) in a reservoir.
This is not often obtained, except in favorable and limited
conditions. See Fig. 11
Fig. 11
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
For a rock to form a reservoir: It must
have the following:
1. Porosity - storage capacity.
2. Permeability - Fluid flow through the
rock.
3. Saturations contains sufficient
quantity and concentration of
hydrocarbons.
. Core analysis and well logging are
methods used to characterize
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
Porosity
Definition:
For a rock sample- Apparent volume/total volume (VT) is equal to
solid volume (Vs) plus pore volume (Vp).
Porosity (expressed in %)
Effective porosity (u): Well connected pores or interconnected
pores to each other and to other formations that allows fluid to
circulate.
Total porosity (t): Accounts for all pores interconnected or not.
Residual porosity(r): Accounts for only isolated pores
Total porosity = Effective porosity + Residual porosity
If the effective porosity is 30 % and residual porosity is 10 %,
what is the total porosity?
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
Effective porosity varies from less than 1% and
over 40%. Effective porosity ranges can be
classifies as:
- Low porosity if value is less than 5%
- Mediocre porosity if value is >5% and <10%
- Average porosity if value is >10% and <20%
- Good porosity if value is >20% and <30%
- Excellent porosity if value is >30%
Values for Intergranular porosity, dissolution
porosity (i.e. limestone) and fracture porosity
(<1%) are different.
Determination of Porosity:
Porosity can be determined by core analysis or well logging:
Core Analysis:
- Based on the equation: = Vp/VT= = 1-
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
3.
Direct measurement.
- Involves the use of sliding caliper for core
measurements.
- For example for a piece of cylindrical core,
VT (Core diameter d and height h are
determined with the sliding caliper)
- Best method to use for rocks that have
fissures or macro pores.
if you have a piece of cube core, will (VT) be the
same as the measurement for a cylindrical core?
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
B.
The following methods are used to
measure (VS):
1. Measurement of the buoyancy exerted on a
sample by a solvent with which it is saturated.
- Vs is obtained based on the weight
difference of sample in air and in the immersed
solvent.
VS
2. Use of a compression chamber and MarrioteBoyles law.
- Based on the relationship between Pressure
and Volume that is applied in a chamber to
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
C. The following methods are used
to measure (Vp): (Effective pore
volumes)
1. Measurement of the volume of air in the
pores.
- Based on relationship between pressure
and volume (Boyles law)
2. Measurement by weighing a liquid filled pore.
(Brine is mostly used)
3. Measurement by mercury injection. (Vp value
is usually less, due to less invasion of
mercury in the interconnected pores)
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
- Based on measuring a fresh sample filled with water, oil and gas. (Not
the same fluid distribution as downhole). why?
- Sum of the of volume of the three fluid is equal to the rock total volume.
(A mercury positive displacement pump is used to determine V T)
Effect of Pressure:
- Rock porosity is reduced due to rock compression for
example due to production in the reservoir.
- Porosity obtained from the above methods do not correct for
differences between reservoir and laboratory conditions
because the porosity variation is low and a core does not
represent as entire reservoir.
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
Laws of Horizontal Flow in Steady-state
condition:
Note:
- Oil, water:
Darcys law
- Gas at low velocity:
Darcys law
- Gas:
Elementary pressure drop law
- Oil, water at high velocity: Elementary pressure drop law
Liquids:
Parallel flow:
Q=KA/
R=drainage radius
rw= Borehole radius ( at
pressure Pwf)
Pi= initial reservoir pressure
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
Gases:
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
Absolute Permeability, Effective Permeability and Relative
Permeability:
- Absolute rock permeability depends on the direction
considered. (kv and Kh)
- Due to stratification (problems of fluids with different
densities), kv is much lower than Kh.
- Relative permeability (oil) = Effective permeability (oil)
Permeability of rock
Will relative permeability for oil be the same as that of gas
in a oil and gas reservoir? Explain
- Relative permeability depends on the rock sample and the
fluid proportions.
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
Absolute permeability is determined
by air circulation (constant or
variable head air permeameters)
See page 44 and 45 on how absolute
rock permeability can be determined,
using the above methods
Note: Porosity/Permeability exercise
will be illustrated in class.
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
Saturations
- For a pore volume (Vp) that contains
(Vw) volume of water, (Vo) volume of oil,
and Vg (Volume of gas). The oil, water
and gas saturations are:
Sw= Vw/Vp, So = Vo/Vp and Sg=Vg/Vp
- Sw + So + Sg = 100%
- To know the oil and gas volume in place
requires knowing this saturations.
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
The distribution and displacement of different fluids in
Characterization of Reservoir
Rock
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Well log Method:
Basic method used to determine saturation.
Reservoir saturation cross-sections:
Saturations from a reservoir cross-section can be
made as a function of depth. See Fig 2.21
Surveys with a scanner:
- Used to obtain cross-sections images that aid to
visualize porous medium, morphology of the pores,
heterogeneities and fractures. Used to aid in
saturation calculation and saturation variations and
porosity calculations.
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Well logs
- Downhole recording of formations in a drilled borehole
with depth.
- Example is an electric well log: Used for reservoir
assessment.
The purpose of a well logs are:
1. Identification of reservoirs. (Lithology, porosity,
saturations( water/oil/gas) as a function of depth.
2. The dip of beds.
3. Well survey. (Diameter, inclination, casing cementing,
perforations)
4. Well correlations.
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Main characteristic recorded:
1. Resistivity and Spontaneous
potential
2. Natural radioactivity (gamma rays)
and induced radioactivity
(neutron/gamma-gamma)
3. Speed of sound, attenuation of
acoustic waves.
4. Borehole diameter and deviation,
Dip of beds
Characterization of
Reservoir
Rock
Electric Logs:
1. Spontaneous Potential (SP)
- The log is based on natural currents (no transmitters)
- Variation in electric potential are measured directly
between a surface electrode and the sonde.
-. Characteristics obtained are: Boundary of the reservoir
beds and resistivity of pore water Rw.
2. Resistivity log:
- Involves the use of transmitters to send electric current
into the formation.
- It measures the apparent formation/reservoir resistivity.
(Hydrocarbons have high resistivity and water with
increasing salinity (salt-water) has decreasing resistivity;
rock matrices is insulating.
- Characteristics obtained are a function of the porosity and
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
- Resistivity logs can differentiate water from hydrocarbons.
Archie
equation:
n
(Rw/Rt)
n = 2 (for Formations with fractures)
Rt = True formation resistivity (can be obtained from logs)
Rw = Water resistivity
= Rock porosity
Sw = Water saturation
NOTE: The above equation is satisfied for clean reservoirs (with very
little shale).
3. Microresistivity Log:
- Used for measuring invaded zone resistivity that helps to provide
information on porosity and water saturation of the reservoir.
Characterization of
Reservoir
Rock
4. Neutron Relaxation (TDT):
- The log helps to locate hydrocarbons behind casing and
monitor interface changes during production.
Sonic (or Acoustic) Log:
- Involves sound waves transmission and reception.
- Delta time is transmitter/receiver interval that varies
with fluid types and formation types. See page 69.
- Can be used to determine lithologies and porosity
(compressional travel time)
Auxillary Logs:
1. Caliper logs:
- Measures borehole diameter. (identifies cavings,
constrictions, cement quantities e.tc)
Characterization of
2. Dipmeter: Reservoir Rock
- Logs provide dip bed values and its direction.
3. Cement Bond Log:
- Measures the amplitude of acoustic signal received through
cement. (Signal is weak, if cement is present (attenuation) and
signal is strong, if cement is absent).
- The log analysis helps to identify cement bonding to the
casing and to the formation.
Determination of Lithology, Porosity and Saturations:
The following are used:
Lithology:
a. Gamma and/or SP + cuttings (and cores)
and, if necessary with:
b. Neutron + Density + or (Sonic) combinations
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Porosity:
Resistivity, neutron, density, sonic
Saturations:
a. Resistivity (+SP), for Rw,as needed)
n(R /R )
w
t
water and oil (or gas).
b. neutron + density combination for gas (lower density and higher neutron,
where D indicates too strong apparent porosity and N too weak apparent
porosity)
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Production Logs:
- The logs analysis the production and characteristics of
fluids level by level to determine: Production(injection)
intervals; fluid types produced and at each level;
completion quality (i.e. well treatment (acidizing) or
cementing job seal etc.)
- Ran during well production(examples of instruments
are: flow-meters, gradiometer or combined (Production
logging tool))
- Information such as: Flow-rate, water cut, GOR, density
e.tc are obtained for each interval; and also the
production well results at the surface for each interval.
Oils:
The specific gravity (SG) is between 0.75 and 1.
(Also in API gravity)
See equation in Text.
Compressibility:
It is property that enables the water from an aquifer to
drain a reservoir by expansion.
Viscosity:
Viscosity is determined in the laboratory or from a chart.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Knowing the Volume of hydrocarbon
in place in a reservoir is a
fundamental importance.
Oil and gas in place: Original Oil in
Place (OOIP), Oil initial in Place (OIIP),
Original gas in place (OGIP), Gas
Initial in Place (GIIP).
Or called Accumulations
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
The Different Categories of Oil and Gas in Place:
Volumes in place are classified and varies with time as the
reservoir is better understood.
Information from drilled wells (such as: logs, petrophysical
measurements, PVT analysis, e.t.c) along with geophysical
and geological surveys are used in the estimation.
When a reservoir is discovered, a rapid preliminary
calculation is used to estimate Hydrocarbon Initial in place
(HCIIP) volume.
- Few data is available to be used and all results form the
discovery are analyzed.
- Rough estimation results.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
First/second (HCIIP) estimate leads to a decision
to drill one or more extension wells.
- Used for reservoir image clarification and if,
possible for production forecast.
- Improved estimation results.
Reservoir development starts thereafter.
- More drilled well provides more information
- Information is added to further clarify reservoir
image.
- Reservoir estimation is finally clarified at the end
of the field development phase.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
The different categories of quantities in place are represented
roughly by: Proven, Probable and Possible for a level or
reservoir.
1. Proven oil in place: Considered as certain.(Zones penetrated by
wells)
2. Probable oil in place: structural data, log interpretations and
pressure indicate impregnated zones, but without absolute
certainty.
3. Possible oil in place: Insufficient data on fluid interfaces and
extension of facies in certain zones leads to uncertainties, but the
presence of hydrocarbon-saturated rocks is not discarded.
. Proven oil < Actual (Start of the life of a field)
. Proven + Probable+ Possible oil > Actual (more wells drilled to
enhance reservoir image leads to closer to actual oil)
See Figure below: Different categories of oil in place
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Volumetric Calculation of Oil and Gas in
Place:
Two methods are used to assess the volume
in place.
1. Volumetric methods (will illustrate here)
2. Dynamic method (later chapter)
. Dynamic method is used if the reservoir has
produced for sometime (one or two years)
and to confirm the values from the
volumetric method.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Principle of Volumetric method:
It can be difficult to access (HCIIP) because:
1. Complexity of porous medium
2. Uncertainty to the exact reservoir shape
3. Insufficient data such as porosity,
Saturation, e.t.c. (Few drilled wells in a large
area)
. Difficulty is in the parameters determination
that is used in (HCIIP) estimation and not
the volume calculation.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
The
calculation can be simplified as:
1. Volume (reservoir conditions) =
Volume of impregnated rock VR x Useful thickness/Total thickness or net
pay /gross pay x
porosity x saturation with hydrocarbons
2. Volume (Surface conditions)= Volume in reservoir conditions/Formation
volume factor
Combine 1 and 2: for example, for oil
R* *
The volume in place are adjusted to surface conditions fro easy of
comparison with cumulative hydrocarbon production.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Calculation of Volume of Impregnated Rock V R:
Can be made considering the whole reservoir,
or
Can be made composed of several sectors or compartments
(faults, different levels, facies variations) by subdividing the
reservoir vertically and Horizontally.
Horizontal Subdivision:
First made automatically when the structure saddles two or more
permits or leases.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Vertical Subdivision:
This subdivision depends mainly on the geological model adapted.
Can be made from the identification of large units from logs and/or
sedimentological analysis.
The volume in place for each unit and the best production scheme
can be determined for wells in the unit.
The subdivision is made by units that can be identified on the
entire sector.
The reservoir must be considered as a whole, without a need for
subdivision if the distribution of sedimentary bodies is anarchic.
It is best to subdivide the reservoir to a reasonable degree (not
more) to minimize errors that would lead to vast calculations.
An example is a subdivision that is based on log analysis and
laboratory measurements (cuttings and cores) that will help
determine if the reservoirs are independent or not.
This can help in analyzing changes in pressure and production in
each level after production starts in the reservoir.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Fluid Interfaces:
Exact position of any O/W, G/W and G/O interfaces in each level (unit) must be
clarified.
The interfaces can be identified by logs, core analyses, and production tests.
The two methods below can be used to calculate the volume of impregnated
rock (VR) or Reservoir rock.
1. Reservoir rock volume calculation from Isobaths cubic content or Area
depth
method:
- Can be used in the calculation of each unit volume.
- Geological and geophysical surveys are used to furnish
isobaths maps for the top and the base of the reservoir.
- A planimeter is used on the two maps to calculate the rock
volume.
- The maps are plotted on a depth/area diagram and together with the
OWC
contact gives the volume of impregnated rock. With a Gas cap (GOC),
rock
volume for gas and that of oil is determined separately.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
2. Rapid Calculation Method:
- Used for rapid estimation of the rock
volume to obtain an order of magnitude
from a poorly known structure at the time of
discovery. (Area depth method is not
employed)
- Structure is treated as spherical dome
or trapezoidal shape. See examples in the
fig. below that demonstrates the
determination of VR based on the structures.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Calculation of the volume of Oil from
Isopach Maps:
This calculation is made later when a minimum
number of wells has been drilled.
Involves the combination of two isobaths maps (Top
and Bottom of the reservoir) to get an isopach map of
the reservoir.
An iso-h/porosity map is obtained from the porosities
of wells to chart a map of porosities.
Pore volume calculation is made from a Planimeter
tracing the area S between curves for the two maps.
Vp = S x hu x porosity. (See figure in text)
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
More accurate if lateral variations in thickness and porosity are
substantial.
Volume in place (N) are calculated with the determination of
the average value of Bo and Swi (or Sw in the transition zone)
with the aid of iso-oil (or iso-gas) maps.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Uncertainties and Probabilistic Methods:
Lack of information about a reservoir can lead to major
numerical errors.
Probabilistic method is applied to parameters characterizing
reservoirs to minimize errors.
Examples of the probabilistic methods used are: Monte
Carlo and Krigeing Methods. The results gives an average
value and a probabilized range of volumes in place.
The following type of uncertainties origin can be
distinguished:
1. Systematic: Due to related technique applied. (i.e.
Uncertainties related to seismic picking, acoustic velocity,
e.t.c)
2. Occasional: Related to the reservoir itself. (i.e. water levels,
correlations (function of the type of sedimentation), e.t.c.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
The uncertainties can be quantified by:
1. Subjective uncertainties: Use of light statistical
approach and recommendation of experienced
personal in determination of the uncertainties
to derive the probabilities.
2. Objective uncertainties: Uncertainties made at
end of the field development with large data set
that provides more valid statistics.
NOTE: Decisions are mainly taken at the start of
development and the uncertainties are essentially
subjective.
Multi-Phase Flow
Flow in reservoirs are not generally
one phase flow.
An oil reservoir, with oil above the
bubble point or dry/wet gas reservoir
without an aquifer is an example of a
one phase flow
Multi-phase flow can result from two
or three phase flow among oil ,gas
and water in a reservoir
Multi-Phase Flow
Cases of Multi-phase flow
Oil Reservoir:
1. Original G/O and O/W interfaces location
change (2- phase)
2. Dissolved gas liberation from oil (PR<Pb); 2phase or if near an O/W interface (3-phase)
3. Gas injection in an oil reservoir or water
injection in an under-saturated oil (2phase) and if water in injected in saturated
oil (3-phase)
Multi-Phase Flow
Gas Reservoir:
1. Original G/W or G/O interfaces location
change (2- phase)
2. When gas condensate is under
retrograde dew-point pressure (2-phase)
or if near a near an aquifer (3-phase)
. Forces acting on multi-phase flow (2phase flow) are Viscosity forces, gravity
forces and capillarity forces
Multi-Phase Flow
Relationship between capillary doublelet,
development of drops and Jamin effect in
2-phase flow in two porous medium
One porous medium with two smaller pore
spaces and the other with a smaller and
wider pore space
Movement of displaced oil in the pore space
of a reservoir whether injected with water or
due to an aquifer is easier in the first porous
medium compared to the second porous
medium (doublelet)
This is due to additional capillary forces in a
smaller pore spaces of the first porous
Multi-Phase Flow
Multi-Phase Flow
Multi-Phase Flow
Relative permeability kri = Ki/K
Ki = Effective permeability (2-phase)
K = Absolute permeability (1-phase)
The relative permeabilities for water, oil and gas, when
any two of the fluids exist in a given medium is given
as:
Water: Krw = Kw/k
Oil: Kro = Ko/k
Gas: Krg = Kg/k
Relative permeability range is between 0 and 1
When a single fluid is present in a rock, relative
permeability is 1.
Multi-Phase Flow
Relative permeability calculation is
used for comparison of the ability of
different fluids to flow in the
presence of each other
Multi-Phase Flow
Variation in Relative Permeability as a Function of
Saturation
Oil/Water (or Gas/Water)Pair:
If a rock sample has oil and contains pore water. Initially (S w =
Sw) and when a water (wetting fluid) is slowly injected,
(Referred as Displacement by imbibition), the following can
be observed.
1. The relative oil permeability decreases and the relative
water permeability increases up to a maximum water
saturation Swm = 1- Sor; as the water saturation increases (Oil
is slowly pushed out from the pores and replaced by water)
2. Oil stops circulating at the residual oil saturation (minimum
saturation)
3. Water starts circulating above the connate water or initial
water saturation in the pores (Swi)
Multi-Phase Flow
When Kro + Krw < 1 (indicates that both
fluids hinder each other during
simultaneous movement)
When (Swm =1 Sor), oil no longer flows out
and at this point an oil reservoir has being
swept by water
The same phenomenon happens in a oil
reservoir with a aquifer drive energy source
See the diagram that shows the relative
permeability relationship with saturation for
Oil/Water mixture
Multi-Phase Flow
Multi-Phase Flow
Oil/Gas Pair:
Similar observation as above, but
with the gas phase
The critical gas saturation is the
minimum gas saturation required for
gas to flow
See the diagram below that shows
the relative permeability relationship
with saturation for Oil/Gas mixture
Multi-Phase Flow
Multi-Phase Flow
Relative permeabilities comments: Practical
applications
NOTE:
The inhibition curve must be if oil is displaced by
water (O/W interface and/or water injection) at
least for water-wet medium. This also applies to a
gas reservoir with an active aquifer
The drainage curve must be used if oil is displaced
by gas (G/O interface and/or gas injection)
because the gas is non-wetting compared to oil
Multi-Phase Flow
Determination of Relative Permeabilities
This can be done by taking measurements in
reservoir condition (P,T) on large core samples or
use of empirical equations in the absence of
cores
Two methods that used are:
1. Displacement of one fluid by another,
Unsteady-state, WJBN method
2. Static method for measuring relative
permeability, steady-state method
. Empirical equations: See text on the equations
for gas/oil pair and oil/water pair as specified.
Multi-Phase Flow
Capillary Imbibition
It is the spontaneous displacement of non-wetting fluid by a
wetting fluid
A typical example is oil displacement by water and is a favorable
mechanism for oil recovery
Theory of Frontal Displacement
Front Concept:
Involves the flow of two immiscible fluids in a large medium in
one direction with variations in pressure, saturations, fluid speeds
e.tc in a single space direction that corresponds to the movement
direction
Typical examples are: A displacement that corresponds to the
movement of G/O or O/W interface during natural depletion or it
may occur between two lines of production and injection wells
See the diagram below that shows the saturation profile for water
at a given time, as a function of the displacement direction x
(Increasing x), when it displaces Oil (Four zones are noted)
Multi-Phase Flow
Multi-Phase Flow
See the relationship (equation) for water-cut (fw)
at the front with regards to flow-rate, relative
permeabilities, Viscosity for oil and water as
specified
Water cut is a function of saturation and flow-rate
of oil
Encroachment, Instability Mechanism,
Definition of Mobility Ratio
Encroachment:
Involves the distortion of the interfaces (i.e. O/W,
G/O or G/W) and fronts in a porous medium
Multi-Phase Flow
Encroachment that occurs in a larger scale in the
front is called Tongue
Encroachment that occurs in a smaller scale is called
Fingering
Encroachment that occurs near a producing well is
called coning
Encroachments are governed by conditions of
stability or instability
A stable movement is where a small change in the
movement initial conditions (initial coordinates,
initial speed) causes variations in the movement that
remains small over time and of the same order as
the initial disturbance
The opposite to above is called unstable movement
Multi-Phase Flow
Mobility Ratio:
See the relationship (equation) for mobility ratio as
specified
Mobility ratio of displaced oil or gas depends on
relative permeability of oil/oil viscosity and that of the
displacing fluids on relative permeability of the
displacing fluid/fluid viscosity
The lower the mobility ratio, the better the
displacement stability
Instabilities such as (tongues, fingering) are most
likely to occur if Mobility ratio is higher than 1
Mobility ratio (M > 1) is unfavorable (i.e. for gas
displacement, since gas is gas viscosity is very low0
Mobility ratio (M< 1) is favorable (only for gas or light
oil displaced by water)
Multi-Phase Flow
Tongue:
Two conditions that results to the instability
mechanism in the formation of tongue are: M>1
and Qo>Qc (Production flowrate > critical flowrate)
Tongue formation affects production
Fingering:
Occurs due to rock heterogeneity (variation in
permeabilities) and grows to a metric or decametric
scale if (M>1)
If (M<1), incipient fingering is resorbed
Higher the mobility ratio and more rock
heterogeneity, the more likely for fingering to occur
Fingering is superimposed on tongue occurrence
Multi-Phase Flow
Coning:
An example of interface encroachment that
results from the local interface deformation (G/O
or O/W) near a producing well
Draw-off is related to the pressure difference
between the well and interface, which results in
the distortion of the interface to approach the well
Two types of coning are: Bottom coning and Edge
coning
See the diagram below that describes tongue,
fingering and coning (Bottom and Edge coning)
Multi-Phase Flow
Tongue
Bottom coning
Edge Coning
Fingering
Multi-Phase Flow
Two-phase flow:
1. Expansion
Oil/water: similar to expansion mechanism, except it involves
water rising very fast through the fractures (Affects
production)
Gas/oil: Not much difference from a non-fractured formation
because the main compressibility is due to gas except for the
rapid formation of a secondary gas cap due to the fractures
2. Exudation
Involves the expulsion of hydrocarbons from the block into
the fractures due to a combined action of capillarity forces
(static imbibition) and gravitational forces
Oil/water and water-wet rock: Involves the spontaneous
penetration of water into the block by imbibition and also by
gravity from the top. (Both processes are cumulative)
In conclusion:
- Water-flooding (water injection) is used for reservoir pressure
maintenance
- May be dispersed type in oil zone or peripheral type in aquifer
The technical and economic aspects:
Technical aspect: Selection:
- Based on oil viscosity (Good oil recovery efficiency with water flooding
for light oil compared to heavy oil)
- Based on water source, which is usually aquifer levels in shallow
water, sea-water in offshore drilling or surface water onshore (lakes, rivers)
-Based on reservoir heterogenueousity (Water-flooding is good for
water-wet heterogeneous reservoir rocks)
Economic aspect: Higher investment for water-flooding compared to gas
flooding (require more water-flooded wells compared to gas flooded wells
since water mobility and injectivity is lower), however the injected fluid
flow-rate depends on the injection pressure.