Axial skeleton

Dr . Adam H. Iman

 The Axial skeleton includes the skull,

vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.
The skeletal system develops from
paraxial and lateral plate (parietal
layer) mesoderm and from neural
crest.

 Paraxial mesoderm forms a segmented series

of tissue blocks on each side of the neural
tube, known as somitomeres in the head
region and somites from the occipital region
caudally

 Somites differentiate into : ventromedial part, called sclerotome,

dorsolateral part, called dermomyotome

 Mesenchyme, or embryonic
connective tissue have characteristic to
migrate and differentiate in many ways.
They may become fibroblasts,
chondroblasts, or osteoblasts (bone
forming cells).

 Hyaline cartilage, the most widely distributed type (e.g., in

joints)
Fibrocartilage (e.g., in intervertebral discs)
Elastic cartilage (e.g., in auricles of the external ears)

Skull
Divided into two parts:
Neurocranium: forms a protective case
around the brain.
Viscerocranium: forms the skeleton of
the face.

Neurocranium
Divided into two portions:
(1) membranous part, consisting of flat
bones, which surround the brain as a
vault.
(2) cartilaginous part, or chondrocranium,
which forms bones of the base of the
skull.

Membranous Neurocranium
Derived from neural crest cells and paraxial mesoderm.
Mesenchyme of those two sources undergoes
membranous ossification.
Resulting in a number of flat, membranous bones that
are characterized by the presence of needlelike bone
spicules.
Spicules progressively radiate from primary ossification
centers toward the periphery.
With further growth during fetal and postnatal life,
membranous bones enlarge by apposition of new
layers on the outer surface and by simultaneous
osteoclastic resorption from the inside.

Skull bones of a 3-month-old fetus show the spread of bone spicules from
primary ossification centers in the flat bones of the skull.

Skeletal structures of the head and face.

Mesenchyme for these structures is derived from neural crest (blue),
paraxial mesoderm (somites and somitomeres) (red),
lateral plate mesoderm (yellow).

New Born Skull

At birth, the flat bones of the skull are separated from each other by
narrow seams of connective tissue, the sutures, derived from two
sources:
neural crest cells (sagittal suture)
paraxial mesoderm (coronal suture).
At points where more than two bones meet, sutures are wide and
are called fontanelles
The most prominent of these is the anterior fontanelle, which is
found where the two parietal and two frontal bones meet.
Sutures and fontanelles allow the bones of the skull to overlap
(molding) during birth.
Soon after birth, membranous bones move back to their original
positions, and the skull appears large and round.
In fact, the size of the vault is large compared with the small facial
region

Skull of a newborn,
Note the anterior and posterior fontanelles and sutures.
The posterior fontanelle closes about 3 months after birth;
the anterior fontanelle closes around the middle of the second year.
Many of the sutures disappear during adult life.

After Birth
Several sutures and fontanelles remain membranous for
a considerable time after birth.
Vault continue to grow after birth, because the brain
grows.
Although a 5-to 7-year-old child has nearly all of his or
her cranial capacity.
Some sutures remain open until adulthood.
In the first few years after birth, palpation of the anterior
fontanelle may give valuable information as to whether
ossification of the skull is proceeding normally and
whether intracranial pressure is normal.
Anterior fontanelle closes by 18 months of age,
Posterior fontanelle closes by 1 to 2 months of age.

A fetal cranium showing the bones,

fontanelles, and sutures.
A, Lateral view.

B, Superior view. The posterior and

C.,3D-dimensional ultrasound rendering of

the fetal head at 22 weeks (gestational
age). Note the anterior fontanelle (*) and
the frontal suture (arrow). The coronal and
sagittal sutures are also shown.

Chondrocranium
The cartilaginous neurocranium (chondrocranium) of the
skull initially consists of a number of separate cartilages.
Those that lie in front of the rostral limit of the notochord,
which ends at the level of the pituitary gland in the center
of the sella turcica, are derived from neural crest cells.
They form the prechordal chondrocranium.
Those that lie posterior to this limit arise from occipital
sclerotomes formed by paraxial mesoderm and form the
chordal chondrocranium.
The base of the skull is formed when these cartilages
fuse and ossify by endochondral ossification

Dorsal view of the

chondrocranium, or base of the
skull, in the adult showing bones
formed by endochondral
ossification.
Bones that form rostral to the
rostral half of the sella turcica
arise from neural crest and
constitute the prechordal (in
front of the notochord)
chondrocranium (blue).
Those forming posterior to this
landmark arise from paraxial
mesoderm (chordal
chondrocranium) (red).

Viscerocranium
consists of the bones of the face, is formed mainly from the first two
pharyngeal arches.
The first arch gives rise to a dorsal portion, the maxillary process, which
extends forward beneath the region of the eye and gives rise to the maxilla,
the zygomatic bone, and part of the temporal bone
The ventral portion, the mandibular process, contains the Meckel cartilage.
Mesenchyme around the Meckel cartilage condenses and ossifies by
membranous ossification to give rise to the mandible.
The Meckel cartilage disappears except in the sphenomandibular ligament.
The dorsal tip of the mandibular process, along with that of the second
pharyngeal arch, later gives rise to the incus, the malleus, and the stapes.
Ossification of the three ossicles begins in the fourth month, making these
the first bones to become fully ossified.
Mesenchyme for formation of the bones of the face is derived from neural
crest cells, including the nasal and lacrimal bones .

Lateral view of the head and neck region of

an older fetus, showing derivatives of the
arch cartilages participating in formation of
bones of the face.

Vertebral column
Vertebrae form from the sclerotome
portions of the somites, which are
derived from paraxial mesoderm.
A typical vertebra consists of a
vertebral arch and foramen
(through which the spinal cord passes),
a body, transverse processes, and
usually a spinous process

 During the fourth week, sclerotome cells

migrate around the spinal cord and notochord
to merge with cells from the opposing somite
on the other side of the neural tube.
As development continues, the sclerotome
portion of each somite also undergoes a
process called resegmentation.
Resegmentation occurs when the caudal half
of each sclerotome grows into and fuses with
the cephalic half of each subjacent sclerotome

 Thus, each vertebra is formed from the

combination of the caudal half of one somite
and the cranial half of it neighbor.
Mesenchymal cells between cephalic and
caudal parts of the original sclerotome
segment do not proliferate but fi ll the space
between two precartilaginous vertebral
bodies.
In this way, they contribute to formation of the
intervertebral disc

Ribs and Sternum

THE END