Fundamental Stratigraphic

Workshop
 Outline
Introduction Silisiclastic Sequence
Definition Stratigraphy
The origin of sedimentary rocks Accomodation
Sedimentology and Vertical Boundaries
stratigraphy
Parasequence and
The importance
parasequence set
Some important of
stratigraphic principles Parasequence stacking
Stenos law pattern
Uniformitarianism Depositional Sequence
Walthers law High Resolution Sequence
Depositional environments Stratigraphy
Introduction Lithostratigraphy vs
Alluvial fan chronostratigraphy
Meandering stream channels
Deltaic-Estuarine
Facies Analysis
Continental shelf sands Data
Well Log data
Side wall core
Conventional core data
Seismic
Introductio
n
 Introduction

Stratigraphy adalah ilmu yang

mempelajari lapisan batuan baik
berupa perubahan genetik,
hubungan umur antar lapisan
batuan, maupun bentuk
penyebaran, komposisi batuan,
kandungan fosil, sifat geokimia
dan geofisika batuan dan atribut-
atribut batuan sebagai suatu
lapisan (Bates dan Jackson, 1987)
 Introduction
Sedimentology vs
stratigraphy
Sedimentology = the study of processes of formation,
transport
and deposition of material which accumulates as
sediment in
continental and marine environments and eventually
forms
sedimentary rocks

Stratigraphy = the study of rock strata to determine

the
order (the relationships between strata) and timing
(relative
and absolute ages) of events in Earth history

Sedimentary geology ~ sedimentology + stratigraphy

 Introduction
The origin of sedimentary rocks

4 basic processes:

Weathering
m Transport
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5/ 1425 Deposition
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u Compaction and
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A sedimentary rock has a long history and has

been
subjected to modification by various processes
 Introducti
on
The first process, WEATHERING, produces the materials that
a sedimentary
rock is composed of by mechanical (freezing) and chemical
(dissolution of
minerals, formation of new minerals [clays]) interaction
between atmosphere,
hydrosphere and earth surface rocks
The second process, TRANSPORT, moves these materials to
their final
destination. Rivers are the main transporting agent of
material to the oceans.
During transport the sediment particles will be sorted
according to size and
density and will be rounded by abrasion. Material that has
been dissolved during
weathering will be carried away in solution. Winds may also
play a role. The
sorting during transport is important because it is the reason
that we have
distinct clastic rock types (conglomerates, sandstones,
shales)
The third process, DEPOSITION, of a sediment, occurs at a
Sedimentology primarily focuses on how
were sediments/sedimentary rocks
formed?
Smaller temporal and spatial scales
 Geologic Time
Divisions in the worldwide
stratigraphic column based
on
variations in preserved
fossils

A major difference between

geologists and most other
scientists is their attitude
about
time.

A "long" time may not be

important unless it is > 1
million
years.
Source: IHRDC/IPIMS
Mochtar DJ/Central_Sumatra_Workshop/Rumbai_apr06
 Introduction

The importance

Stratigraphy can be used to infer past

environments of the earth based on the physical
characteristics of the rocks and the changes in
environment that occurred over time

Stratigraphy has great economic importance by

providing time markers in the geological record
and is used in oil and gas exploration and
exploitation, mining etc.
 Introduction
Some stratigraphy
principles
In the late 1669, Steno formulated 3 principles that
are
widely used today to make stratigraphic
interpretation:

1) The principle of superposition

2) The principle of original horizontality

3) The principle of original lateral continuity

 Introduction
Stenos law

1. The principle
superposition

In any succession of strata not

severely deformed, the oldest
stratum lies at the bottom,
successively younger ones above.

This is the basis of the

establishment
Of the relative ages of all strata
and
Their contained fossils.
 Introduction
Stenos law
2. The principle of original
horizontality

Because sedimentary particles settle

from fluids and experience the
influence
of gravity, stratification was originally
horizontal and when steeply inclined
Source: http://www.bhc.edu/academics/science/harwoodr/GEOL101/STUDY/Images/Beach01.jpg

must have suffered subsequent

disturbance

Source: http://www.bhc.edu/academics/science/harwoodr/GEOL101/STUDY/Images/Beach01.jpg
 Introduction
Stenos law
3. The principle of original lateral continuity

strata originally extended in all directions until they thinned

to zero or terminated against the edges of their original basin
of deposition.

Source: http://www.bhc.edu/academics/science/harwoodr/GEOL101/STUDY/Images/D041-551.jpg
 Uniformitarianism (James Hutton, 1785)
The present is the key to the past

Modern depositional system

Ancient deposit
Mochtar DJ/Central_Sumatra_Workshop/Rumbai_apr06
 Introduction
Walthers Law (1894)
Study relationship of facies to depositional setting

Without unconformities, facies that are adjacent laterally will be

superimposed vertically

Source: IHRDC/IPIMS

Source: IHRDC/IPIMS
Various data
Well logs
Side wall core / cutting
Conventional Core
Seismic
Well logs
There are many different types
of well logs. Some of the logs
that are used to interpret the
rocks in a well are discussed
below. Other types of logs
measure temperatures, the flow
rate of oil and gas that is being
produced in the well, and the
quality of cement used to bond
production pipe (which is
actually called casing) to the
surrounding rock. Today, there
are even cameras that can be
lowered into wells to make
videos of the inside of the
casing and determine what
types of fluids are flowing
out of perforation holes shot
into the casing.
GR (gamma ray) logs measure radioactivity to determine what types of
rocks are present in the well. Because shales contain radioactive
elements, they emit lots of gamma rays.

SP (spontaneous potential) logs indicate the permemabilities of rocks

in the well by measuring the amount of electrical current generated
between the drilling fluid and the formation water that is held in pore
spaces of the reservoir rock. Porous sandstones with high permeabilities
tend to generate more electricity than impermeable shales. Thus, SP logs
are often used to tell sandstones from shales.

Resistivity logs determine what types of fluids are present in the

reservoir rocks by measuring how effective these rocks are at conducting
electricity. Because fresh water and oil are poor conductors of electricity
they have high resistivities. By contrast, most formation waters are salty
enough that they conduct electricity with ease. Thus, formation waters
generally have low resistivities.

FDC (formation density compensated) logs, also called density logs,

determine porosity by measuring the density of the rocks. Because these
logs overestimate the porosity of rocks that contain gas they result in
"crossover" of the log curves when paired with Neutron logs (described
under CNL logs below).

CNL (compensated neutron) logs, also called neutron logs, determine

porosity by assuming that the reservoir pore spaces are filled with either
water or oil and then measuring the amount of hydrogen atoms
(neutrons) in the pores. Because these logs underestimate the porosity of
rocks that contain gas they result in "crossover" of of the log curves when
paired with FDC logs (described above).
 SWC
description Resistivity

Gamma
Ray (GR)

Stratigraphy
Marker
 Density
Caliper

Gamma
Ray (GR)
 Gamma
Ray (GR)

Gamma
Resistivity
Ray (GR)

Resistivity

Neutron

Density
BHC (borehole compensated) logs, also called sonic logs, determine
porosity by measuring how fast sound waves travel through rocks in
the well. In general, sound waves travel faster through high-density
shales than through lower-density sandstones.

NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) logs may be the well logs of the
future. These logs measure the magnetic response of fluids present in
the pore spaces of the reservoir rocks. In so doing, these logs measure
both porosity and permeability, as well as the types of fluids present in
the pore spaces.

Dipmeter logs determine the orientations of sandstone and shale

beds in the well, as well as the orientations of faults and fractures in
these rocks. The original dipmeters did this by measuring the
resisitivity of rocks on at least four sides of the well hole. Modern
dipmeters actually make a detailed image of the rocks on all sides of
the well hole. Borehole scanners do this with sonic (sound) waves,
whereas FMS (formation microscanner) and FMI (formation
micro-imager) logs do this by measuring the resisitivity.
Facies Analysis
 Facies analysis

Facies (from Latin, facia, meaning face or appearance)

is
lithological, structural, and organic aspects detectable
in the
field (de Raaf, 1965)

Rocks or strata which can be characterized by

aspects of
their appearance (lithology, grain size, sedimentary
structures, color, composition, biogenic content)

It can subdivided into:

Lithofacies (physical and chemical
characteristics)
Biofacies (macrofossil content)
Ichnofacies (trace fossils)

Facies associations constitute several facies that

occur in
 Facies analysis

Facies analysis is the interpretation of strata in terms of

depositional environments (or depositional systems),
commonly
based on a wide variety of observations

Facies models are schematic, three-dimensional

representations
of specific depositional environments that serve as
norms for
interpretation and prediction

Facies models are static in the sense that they focus

heavily on autogenic processes and deposits,
following
Walthers Law

Modern processes must constitute the basis for

interpreting
ancient products (uniformitarianism works in many
cases, but not
always)
Mochtar DJ/Central_Sumatra_Workshop/Rumbai_apr06
 Facies analysis
Lithology
Source: IHRDC/IPIMS Grain size
Vertical variations in grain size to be use
in the diagnosis of depositional environm

a) Fining-upward, with a scoured base

b) Coarsening-upward profiles

c) Blocky" profiles whereby grain size

remains relatively constant

d) Sands originating in different

subenvironments commonly coalesce
to form a single vertical grain-size
profile

No single environment has a unique grain-size profile

Similar profiles may be produced by different environments
Therefore, profiles should be interpreted with as much supplementary da

Source: IPIMS
 Facies analysis
Source: IHRDC/IPIMS

Sedimentary Structures

F1
Scour and basal lags

F2
F = facies
FA = facies association
 Facies analysis
Paleontology
The study of ancient life from the fossil
Fossil: record
Remains of formerly living creatures, indicate
both
relative time and environment of deposition
Source: IHRDC/IPIMS
Foraminifera (forams)

The most widely used

microfossils

Single-celled organisms, existed

since the Ordovician, with 1400
genera and 30,000 species
(4,500
still in existence) having been
classified

Planktonic (floating) and

benthic
(bottom-dwelling) forms inhabit
Chamber construction in Dicorbis
a
wide variety of aquatic
Foraminife environments,
from very shallow water to
 Facies analysis
Trace Fossils
Fossilized tracks, trails, burrows etc made by
animals within sediment or on the sediment surface

Bathymetry indicator
Bioturbated
Sandstone Skolithos : vertical burrows
made in sandy or firm mud
bottoms of the littoral
(intertidal) zone by
suspension feeders, i.e., by
organisms that feed on food
particles suspended in the
agitated zone of shallow
water
Source: IHRDC/IPIMS

From conventional cores

Cruziana and Zoophycos:
Provide a reliable record of benthonic more horizontal and
organic
increasingly patterned
communities, because they always occur
insitu and burrows made in soft muds
cannot be reconcentrated by reworking, of the neritic zone by
include sediment feeders
plant trace fossils (i.e. root molds and casts)
 Facies analysis
Geometry

Controlled by: topography of

depositional surface, climate,
paleoslope, nature and amount
of sediment supply, intensity
and direction of local depositional
currents

Isopach mapping is use to

graphically restore to original sha

Same geometry may be produced

than one environment

Single environment may also prod

more than one shape
Source: IHRDC/IPIMS
 Facies analysis

Cross-section
A cross section is a profile showing geological
features in
a vertical plane through the earth

Two categories of cross-section:

Structural: illustrate present-day structural

features
such as dips, folds, and folds

Stratigraphic: show characteristics such as

formation
thickness, lithologic sequences, stratigraphic
correlations, facies changes, unconformities,
 Facies analysis
Structural cross-section

Represented as a present day/actual relief

 Facies analysis
Stratigraphic cross-section

Based on flattened stratigraphic datums. The datum horizon is

represented as a straight horizontal line regardless of its actual
relief
 Facies analysis

Stratigraphic Section
MATUR NUWUN