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What is Research?

- is to search or investigate exhaustively


- careful or diligent search, studious inquiry or
examination especially investigation or experimentation of
facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws
- the collection of information about a particular
subject
- information gathering, and it is having information
which allows us to make informed decisions
In doing research, researchers should adhere to
standards and should follow the existing laws of the place
where research will be conducted. Ethics should be applied
on all stages of research, such as planning, conducting,
and evaluating a research.
Ethical Standards in Doing Research

Adapted
from by Adil E. Shamoo and David Resnik, below
are some ethical standards that a researcher should
adhere to:

Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications.
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures,
and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting
agencies or the public.
Objectivity

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis,


data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant
writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research
where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize
bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial
interests that may affect research.
Integrity

Keep your promises and agreements. Act with sincerity


strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence. Carefully and


critically examine your own work and the work of your
peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as
data collection, research design, and correspondence with
agencies or journals.
Openness

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to


criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual


property. Do not use unpublished data, methods or results
without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give
proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to
research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or


grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade
or military secrets, patient records.
Responsible Publication

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not


to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and
duplicative publication.
Respect for Colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.


Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social


harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the


basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not
related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence

Maintain and improve your own professional competence


and expertise through lifelong education and learning. Take
steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and


governmental policies.
Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals when using


them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly
designed animal experiments.
Human Subject Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize


harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human
dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions
with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the
benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Sampling Techniques

- the act, process or technique of selecting an


appropriate sample, or a representative part of the
population for the purpose of determining the
characteristics of the whole population.
What is the purpose of sampling?

The purpose of sampling is for the researchers to be


able to draw conclusions about the population from the
study on samples.
We use inferential statistics which enables us to
determine a populations characteristics by directly
observing or studying only a portion(or sample) of the
population.
We use a sample rather than a complete enumeration(a
census) of the population because it is convenient and
cheaper to observe a small part rather than the whole.
Schematic Diagram of sampling Techniques

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Simple Random Convenience


Samling (SRS) Sampling (CoS)
Systematic Quota
Sampling (SS) Sampling (QS)
Statified Random Purposive
Sampling (StRS) Sampling (PS)
Cluster Sampling
(CS)

Multi-Stage
Sampling(MSS)
Probability Sampling

Samples are chosen in such a way that each member


of the population has a known though not necessarily equal
chance of being included in the sample.
Samples are called UNBIASED samples.
Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling


All members of the population have a chance of
being included in the sample
Example: Lottery Method and Table of Random Numbers
Probability Sampling

Systematic
Sampling
Selects every member of the population with the
starting point determine at random
Probability Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling


Used when the population can be subdivided into
several smaller groups or strata, then the samples are
randomly selected from each stratum.
Probability Sampling

Cluster Sampling
Called area sampling
Used when the population is very large
Groups or clusters instead of individuals are
randomly selected
Probability Sampling

Multi-Stage Sampling
a combination of two or more probability sampling
Non-Probability Sampling

Each member of the of the population does not have a


known chance of being included in the sample. Instead,
personal judgment plays a very important role in the
selection.
The samples are called BIASED samples.
Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience Sampling
Used because of the convenience it offers to the
researcher.
Non-Probability Sampling

Quota Sampling
Very similar to stratified random sampling, the only
difference is that the selection of the members of the
samples in stratified is done randomly.
Non-Probability Sampling

Purposive Sampling
Involves choosing the respondents on the basis of pre-
determined criteria set by the researcher.

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