U6115: Water

Monday, July 19 2004

The early bird may get

the worm
but the second mouse
gets the cheese.
One thing we should remember from this summer
(and the last 6)

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 Today: Water/Hydrology
Intro to Hydrology

Systems and Cycles

Flux, Source/Sink, Residence time, Feedback
mechanisms
 U6115 Syllabus: Course Outline
Thewatercyclepartoftheclassisfocusedonbasic
physicalprinciples(evaporation,condensation,
precipitation,runoff,streamflow,percolation,and
groundwaterflow),aswellasenvironmentallyrelevant
applicationsbasedoncasestudies.
Mostspecifically,studentswillbeexposedtowater
quantityandissuesfromglobaltoregionalscalesandhow
humanandnaturalprocessesaffectwateravailabilityin
surfaceandgroundwatersystems.
Note:waterqualityissueswillbementionedbutonly
brieflysincetheyhavebeencoveredmoreextensivelyin
theEnvironmentalChemistrycourse(ENVU6220)
 U6115 Syllabus: Course Outline
Wk 8 - Jul 18-24 18-Jul 19-Jul 20-Jul 21-Jul 22-Jul
9:30AM-12:00PM Water 1 Environ. Policy Toxico 2 Pop 8
1-2PM Final Exam Pre-lab Meeting Workshop Pre-lab Meeting Pre-lab Meeting
2-4PM (1-3PM) Climate Water 1 Lab-a Toxico 2 Lab-a Pop 8 Lab-a
4-6PM Water 1 Lab-b Toxico 2 Lab-b Pop 8 Lab-b
Wk 9 - Jul25-31 25-Jul 26-Jul 27-Jul 28-Jul 29-Jul
9:30AM-12:00PM Water 2 Environ. Policy Toxico 3 Pop 9
1-2PM Pre-lab Meeting Workshop Pre-lab Meeting Pre-lab Meeting
2-4PM NJ Water 2 Lab-a Toxico 3 Lab-a Pop 9 Lab-a
4-6PM Water 2 Lab-b Toxico 3 Lab-b Pop 9 Lab-b
Wk 10 - Aug 1-7 1-Aug 2-Aug 3-Aug 4-Aug 5-Aug
9:30AM-12:00PM Water 3 Environ. Policy Toxico 4 Pop 10
1-2PM Pre-lab Meeting Workshop Pre-lab Meeting Pre-lab Meeting
2-4PM Water 3 Lab-a Toxico 4 Lab-a Pop 10 Lab-a
4-6PM Water 3 Lab-b Toxico 4 Lab-b Pop 10 Lab-b
Wk 11 - Aug 8-14 8-Aug 9-Aug 10-Aug 11-Aug 12-Aug
9:30AM-12:00PM Water 4 Environ. Policy Toxico 5 Pop 11
1-2PM Pre-lab Meeting Workshop Pre-lab Meeting Pre-lab Meeting
2-4PM Water 4 Lab-a Toxico 5 Lab-a Pop 11 Lab-a
4-6PM Water 4 Lab-b Toxico 5 Lab-b Pop 11 Lab-b
Wk12 - Aug 15-19 15-Aug 16-Aug 17-Aug 18-Aug 19-Aug
9:30AM-12:00PM Water 5 Environ. Policy Water 6 Exam Pop/Land
1-2PM Pre-lab Meeting Workshop
2-4PM Water 5 Lab-a
4-6PM Water 5 Lab-b

1) Class 1: (July 19) Introduction - Water for the world - Lab 1: Global and regional water budgets
2) Class 2: (July 26) Global water issues - Hydrological cycle - Lab 2: Hydrological Forecasts and
their Communication to Decision-Makers
3) Class 3: (August 02) Dams & Reservoirs - Lab 3: Reservoirs and greenhouse gases
4) Class 4: (August 09) Condensation/Precipitation Streamflow/Floods - Lab 4: Precipitation and
Flood predictions: A Statistical Analysis
5) Class 5: (August 16) Evaporation - Droughts Land Use Impact on Streamflow
6) Class 6: (August 18) Groundwater flow - Groundwater transport
 U6115 Syllabus: Grading (activities)
Water (40% of grade)
Labs: 100% (4 formal labs)
Mostly minds-on experiments with
computers. Lab report due
 Water for the World
The role of water is central to most natural processes
transport
Weathering, contaminant transport
energy balance
transport of heat, high heat capacity
greenhouse gas
~ 80% of the atmospheric greenhouse effect is caused by
water vapor
life
for most terrestrial life forms, water determines where they
may live; man is exception
 Hydrology
literally "water science," encompasses the study of
the occurrence and movement of water on and
beneath the surface of the Earth
finite though renewable resource
finite in quantity, unlimited in supply, use rate is
limited by 'recycling times'
hydrologic sciences have pure and applied aspects
how the Earth works
scientific basis for proper management of water
resources (or any natural resource)
Introduction to hydrology
use of water in 20th century has grown dramatically
 Inventory of water on Earth

Lakes, soil moisture,

atmosphere, rivers
Water on land Deep groundwater 1%
3% (750-4000 m)

Shallow groundwater 14%

(<750 m)
11%

74%
97%

Ice caps and glaciers

Oceans

After Berner and Berner, 1987

 Cycle Approach
Some Definitions
Transport and transformation processes within definite reservoirs: Carbon,
Rock, Water Cycles
Reservoir: (box, compartment: M in mass units or moles) An amount of
material defined by certain physical, chemical, or biological characteristics
that can be considered homogeneous
O2 in the atmosphere
Carbon in living organic matter in the Ocean
Water in the Ocean
Flux: (F) The amount of material transferred from one reservoir to another
per unit time (M/s or M/s.L2)
The rate of evaporation of water from the surface Ocean
The rate of deposition of inorganic carbon (carbonates on marine
sediments
Source: (I or Q) A flux of material into a reservoir
Sink: (O or S) A flux of material out of a reservoir
 More Definitions
Budget: A balance sheet of all sources and sinks of a reservoir. If
sources and sinks balance each other and do not change with
time, the reservoir is in steady-state (M does not change with
time). If steady-state prevails, then a flux that is unknown can be
estimated by its difference from the other fluxes.
for a control volume this means: dM/dt = I'-O'
Turnover time: The ratio of the content (M) of the reservoir to
the sum of its sinks (O) or sources (I). The time it will take to
empty the reservoir if there arent any sources. It is also a
measure of the average time an atom/molecule spends in the
reservoir. Or:
0 = M/O (or M/I)
Cycle: A system consisting of two or more connected reservoir,
where a large part of the material (energy) is transferred through
the system in a cyclic fashion
The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle
 The Water Cycle (in detail)
The volume (M) of water at the surface of the Earth is
enormous: 1.37 109 km3! (total reservoir) The Oceans cover
71% of the Earths surface (29% for the continent masses
above sea level)

Reservoir Volume (km3) % Total

Biosphere 0.6 103 0.00004
Rivers 1.7 103 0.0001
Atmosphere 13 103 0.001
Lakes 125 103 0.01
Groundwater 9500 103 0.68
Glacial and other land ice (?) 29000 103 2.05
Oceanic water and sea ice 1,370,000 103 97.25
Total 1,408,640 103 100

Adapted from Berner & Berner (The Global Water Cycle; Prentice Hall, 1987)
 Fluxes (F in 103 km3/yr)
Of total yearly evaporation, 84% evaporates from the Oceans and 16%
from surface of continents.
However, return to Earth via precipitation: 75% falls directly on the
Oceans and 25% on the continents.
During the year, the atmosphere transports 9% of Oceans evaporation
to the continents!
This water is returned via surface streams and as groundwater
 Errors!
Precipitation and
evaporation are difficult to
measure precisely over the
oceans. They are mostly
estimated from models and
satellite data.
Groundwater reservoir
estimates bear a inherent
error in the fact that they
are indirectly determined.
Soil moisture and
evapotranspiration rates
depend on indirect
measurements and average
soil quality and
global/regional respiration
rates
 Residence Time
(years months weeks)
High probability that a certain fraction of the atoms or molecules forming
the reservoir (M) will be of a certain age (mean age of the element when it
leaves the reservoir)
The simplified residence time turnover time
The time it would take to empty a reservoir if the sink (O or outflow)
remained constant while the sources were zero
0 = M/O (or M/I)
M = 0O
Residence time of water in the atmosphere
M = ?; O = ?; 0 = ?
M = 13 103 km3
S = 297(O) + 99(C) 103 km3/yr = 396 103 km3/yr
0= 0.033 yr = 12 days!
Replacement ~30 times/year
 Residence Time
(years months weeks)
High probability that a certain fraction of the atoms or molecules forming the
reservoir (M) will be of a certain age (mean age of the element when it leaves
the reservoir)
The simplified residence time turnover time
The time it would take to empty a reservoir if the sink (O) remained constant
while the sources were zero
0 = M/O (or M/I)
M = 0O
Residence time of water in the ocean
M = ?; S = ?; 0 = ?
M = 1,370,000 103 km3
S = 334 103 km3/yr (evaporation)
0 = M/S = 4102 yrs!
 Continental Mass Balance
quantitative description applying the principle of conservation of mass
for continents as control volume this can be written as
dV/dt = p - rso - et = 0 (all averaged)

on average this means: p = rso+ et

the water budget for all land areas of the world is: p=800mm, rs = 310mm, and et
= 490mm
the global runoff ration (rs/p) is ~39% there are lots of local and regional
variations.
 System Approach
Feedback: All closed and open systems respond to inputs
and have outputs. A feedback is a specific output that
serves as an input to the system.
Negative Feedback (stabilizing): The systems response is
in the opposite direction as that of the output. CLOUDS!
 System Approach
Positive Feedback (destabilizing): The systems
response is in the same direction as that of the output.

Bottle half full

59 min
 System Approach
Positive Feedback (destabilizing):
CLOUDS!
Surface waters

BRF
 Watershed, catchment, drainage basin
Catchement (drainage basin, watershed): the basic unit of
volume (control) which is an area of land in which water flowing
across the land surface drains into a particular stream and
ultimately flows a single point or outlet.

dV/dt = p - rso - et = 0

on average p = rso + et
 Catchment
Our concern with precipitation and evapotranspiration is in
knowing the rates, timing, and spatial distribution of these
water fluxes between the land and the atmosphere.

dV/dt = p - rso - et = 0
Texas

New York
 Measurement techniques

precipitation evapotranspiration
 Evapotranspiration
Average statewide evapotranspiration for the conterminous United States
range from about 40% of the average annual precipitation in the Northwest
and Northeast to about 100% in the Southwest.
Annual Precipitation - Australia
Annual Evaporation - Australia
Annual Evapotranspiration - Australia
Rivers and
Streams
Measurement techniques
flow depth (stage)

discharge
 Colorado River
hydrograph
Questions:
When does discharge peak and
why?
The hydrographs were taken at
different locations of the river,
what is the difference in the
hydrographs and why is there
one?
Colorado River
hydrograph
Hydrographs are
variable between years
Discharge often peaks
in late winter or
spring, snowmelt
Reservoirs smooth out
extremes
Canada del Oro hydrograph

extended periods with no discharge at all!

http://water.usgs.gov
Santa Cruz River (Tucson, AZ, 1930 vs. 1964 - 1983 flood)
Lakes and
Reservoirs
Reservoir distribution in the U.S.
 Wetlands
Definition (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service):
"WETLANDS are transitional systems between terrestrial and aquatic systems
where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by
shallow water. For purposes of this classification wetlands must have one or
more of the following three attributes:
(1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes;
(2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; and
(3) the substrate is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time
during the growing season of the year."
Hydrologic conditions: Groundwater (water table or zone of saturation) is
at the surface or within the soil root zone during all or part of the
growing season.
Hydric soils: soils that are saturated, flooded, or ponded long enough
during the growing season to develop oxygen-free conditions in the
upper six inches
Hydrophytic vegetation: plants typically adapted to wetland and aquatic
habitats; plants which grow in water or on a substrate that is at least
periodically deficient in oxygen due to excessive water content.
Wetlands are classified into two general categories: coastal and
inland. Coastal wetlands are further classified into marine and
estuarine categories
Inland wetlands are further subdivided in riverine, lacustrine, and
palustrine wetlands.
Peat accumulation usually dominated by moss. Receives
Bog only direct precipitation; characterized by acid water, low
alkalinity, and low nutrients.
Peat accumulation; may be dominated by sedge, reed,
shrub or forest. Receives some surface runoff and/or
Fen
ground water, which has neutral pH and moderate to high
nutrients.
Used mainly in Europe to include any peat-forming wetland
Mire
(bog or fen).
Permanently or periodically inundated site characterized by
Marsh nutrient-rich water. In Europe, must have a mineral
substrate and lack peat accumulation.
Shallow, ephemeral ponds or lagoons that experience
Playa significant seasonal changes in semi-arid to arid climates.
Often have high salinity or may be completely dry.
Widely used term for wetland environment in a channel or
Slough series of shallow lakes. Water is stagnant or may flow
slowly on a seasonal basis. Synonym--bayou.
Characterized by forest, shrub, or reed cover (fen).
Swamp Particularly a forested wetland in North America. Depends
on nutrient-rich ground water derived from mineral soils.
Wet Open prairie, grassland or savannah with waterlogged soils
meadow but without standing water for most of the year.
Deeper, normally perennial pools within wetlands and
Open
shallow portions of lakes and rivers. Ty pically home to
water
submerged macrophytes.
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QuickTime and a
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QuickTime and a
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QuickTime and a
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Fens receive water from the surrounding watershed in inflowing streams

and groundwater, while bogs receive water primarily from precipitation.
Fens, therefore, reflect the chemistry of the geological formations through
which these waters flow.
 Benefits of
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Wetlands
are needed to see this picture.

Loss of floodplain forested wetlands and

confinement by levees have reduced
the floodwater storage capacity of the
Mississippi by 80 percent increasing QuickTime and a
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damage.

The 1993 flood proved this prediction

to be true and resulted in
immeasurable damage
 Coastal Wetlands
Tidal coastal wetlands store carbon densely, holding on to 10% of the
global stock of soil organic carbon in only 0.1% of the Earths surface.
Despite their relatively small area (203 103 km2), tidal coastal wetlands
may act as substantial sinks for atmospheric carbon due both to
exceptional carbon burial fluxes and negligible CH4 and N2O
emissions.
Because the projected sequestration efforts in North American
croplands (0.5-2.5 Pg C) are of the same order of magnitude as C
stocks estimated to exist in the surface meter of wetlands (~4Pg),
major losses of these ecosystems could easily offset any improvement
in preservation of SOC within managed croplands even at its highest
efficiency.
In many coastal regions (i.e. Louisiana Gulf Coast), these wetlands are
being lost are substantial rates (50-100 km2/yr)
Groundwater
Groundwater flow is
controlled by
differences in water table
(hydraulic head)
hydraulic conductivity
(relation between specific
discharge Vol/t and
hydraulic gradient)
Hydraulic conductivity
depends on both the nature
of the fluid (viscosity) and
the porosity of the material

Hornberger et al., 1998

Measurement techniques

Hydraulic head, conductivity