Chapter 40

Quantum Mechanics

PowerPoint Lectures for

University Physics, Thirteenth Edition
Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education Inc.

 Goals for Chapter 40
To introduce and interpret the Schrdinger wave equation
for quantum-mechanical waves
To solve the Schrdinger equation for a one-dimensional
particle in a box
To study the behavior of a quantum-mechanical particle in
a finite potential well
To examine tunneling, in which quantum mechanics allows
a particle to travel through a region that would be forbidden
by Newtonian physics
To consider the quantum-mechanical harmonic oscillator, a
model for molecular vibrations
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 Introduction
Just as we use the wave equation to analyze waves on a string or
sound waves in a pipe, we can use a related equationthe
Schrdinger equationto analyze the behavior of matter from a
quantum-mechanical perspective.
Microscopic beads of different sizes fluoresce under ultraviolet light
(see the figure at right); the smaller the beads, the shorter the
wavelength of visible
light they emit.
The Schrdinger
equation will help
us understand why.

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 Some definitions and ground rules.
In a one-dimensional model, a quantum-mechanical particle is described by a
wave function (x, t).
Everything is a wavefunction, as I have already said. However, I should be
more specific. The wavefunction is (x, t), a MATHEMATICAL MODEL that
describes the connection between the quantum object (e.g., an electron) and our
observations/measurements. All objects (photons, electrons, people, etc.) can be
described by this mathematical model; when this model is used, we call these
objects quantum mechanical.
Wave functions are NOT WAVES. There are NO CLASSICAL WAVES.
Nothing is vibrating or moving as in a classical waves.
But the MATHEMATICS turns out to be very similar to the mathematics of
waves, so we use the same terms (wave number, frequency, amplitude, etc.).
There are also NO CLASSICAL PARTICLES. It is merely a convenience that
we call an object a particle EVEN WHEN we when this object OBEYS ALL
THE LAWS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS (e.g., the Schrodinger Equation),
including those that are impossible for classical particles.
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 Math of Wavefunctions
Start with equation 40.6 and derive 40.8. Note that we are working with non-
relativistic one-dimensional quantum objects for now for simplicity.
We KNOW from diffraction experiences that quantum objects (particles) act
exactly like waves. Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that (x, t) will be
similar to a function describing a general traveling wave. Equation 40.9
Equation 40.10 shows us the momentum part of the equation.
What about the energy part of the equation.
Then you get the one-dimensional Schrodinger equation for a free particle.

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 The Schrdinger equation in 1-D
In a one-dimensional model, a quantum-mechanical particle is described
by a wave function (x, t).
The one-dimensional Schrdinger equation for a free particle of mass m
is
h2 2 x,t x,t
ih
2m x 2
t
The book motivates the origin of this equation, but in the end, this
equation is simply the answer that gives us the correct ability to predict
measurements. It is a fundamental law of the universe.
The presence of i (the square root of 1) in the Schrdinger equation
means that wave functions are always complex functions. FROM NOW
ON, ALMOST ANY NUMBER COULD BE A COMPLEX NUMBER.
The solutions to the one-dimensional wave equation for a free particle
can be represented by Equation 40.16. [Work out 40.16-40.18]

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 The Schrdinger equation in 1-D
The square of the absolute value of the wave function, |(x, t)|2, is called the
probability distribution function. It tells us the probability of making a
measurement of the particle at position x and time t.
What is the absolute value of a complex number? (This is also called the
norm).
What is the complex conjugate of a complex number? Note that the exponent of
* can be written with other symbols: overbar and dagger.
The norm can also be written as |A times A*|.
Notice that the norm of a wavefunction is STILL a function of x and t.
What is Psi*(x,t)?
What is the probability distribution function of Psi(x,t) for the free particle?
What does this mean? [The particle has equal probability to be ANYWHERE.
You might even say that the particle is EVERYWHERE.] There is also no
time-dependence to this probability.
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 The Schrdinger equation in 1-D: A free particle
If a free particle has definite
momentum p and definite
energy E, its wave function
(see Figure 40.3 at right) is

x,t Aeikx ei t
where p hk and E h .

Such a particle is not

localized at all: The wave
function extends to infinity.
Free particles are kinda weird
and anomalous were using
them to help us develop and
understand the math.

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education Inc.

 The Schrdinger equation in 1-D: Wave packets
A free-particle wave packet
(see Figure 40.6 at right) is a
superposition of states of
definite momentum and
energy.
To make the wave packet
more localized in space, the
greater the range of momenta
and energies it must include.
Follow Example 40.1.

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 The Schrdinger equation in 1-D: Stationary states
If a particle of mass m moves in the presence of a potential energy function
U(x), the one-dimensional Schrdinger equation for the particle is

2 x, t
2
x, t
U x x, t i
2m x 2
t
If the particle has a definite energy E, the wave function (x, t) is a product
of a time-independent wave function (x) and a factor that depends on time
t but not position. For such a stationary state the probability distribution
function |(x, t)|2 = |(x)|2 does not depend on time.
x, t x eiEt /
The time-independent one-dimensional Schrdinger equation for a
stationary state of energy E is

d 2 x

2

2m dx 2
U x x E x TISE
Follow Example 40.2.

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 Particle in a box
A particle in a box is a particle of mass m confined to a region
between x = 0 and x = L (see Figure 40.8 at lower left). The potential
energy is zero inside the box and infinite outside (see Figure 40.9 at
lower right).

BASCIALLY EVERY QUANTUM MECHANICS

PROBLEM STARTS WITH: FIND THE STATIONARY
STATES AND THEIR ENERGIES

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 What are the (stationary state) wavefunctions like?
Use TISE d 2 ( x)
2
2
U ( x) ( x) E ( x)
2m dx
(time-independent Schrdinger equation)
What is psi(x) outside of the box?
Do you think psi(x) should be continuous?
What are the boundary conditions?
We need a wave-like solution

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 The wavefunctions are QUANTIZED
By confining the wavefunction to a specific region, we MUST have
only specific wavelengths. So, only certain wavefunctions are allowed
(when we are talking about stationary states).
What else is quantized?

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 Particle in a box: Wave functions, energy levels
Figure 40.11 (below) illustrates the energy levels and associated
stationary-state wave functions (x) for a particle in a box.
Follow Example 40.3.

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Q40.5
The first five wave
functions for a particle in a
box are shown. Compared
to the n = 1 wave function,
the n = 5 wave function has
A. the same kinetic energy
(KE).
B. 5 times more KE.
C. 25 times more KE.
D. 125 times more KE.
E. none of the above

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A40.5
The first five wave
functions for a particle in a
box are shown. Compared
to the n = 1 wave function,
the n = 5 wave function has
A. the same kinetic energy
(KE).
B. 5 times more KE.
C. 25 times more KE.
D. 125 times more KE.
E. none of the above

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Q40.3
The first five wave
functions for a particle in a
box are shown. The
probability of finding the
particle near x = L/2 is
A. least for n = 1.
B. least for n = 2 and n = 4.
C. least for n = 5.
D. the same (and nonzero) for
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
E. zero for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

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A40.3
The first five wave
functions for a particle in a
box are shown. The
probability of finding the
particle near x = L/2 is
A. least for n = 1.
B. least for n = 2 and n = 4.
C. least for n = 5.
D. the same (and nonzero) for
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
E. zero for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

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 Particle in a box: Probability and normalization
Figure 40.12 at right shows the
first three stationary-state wave
functions (x) for a particle in a
box (top) and the associated
probability distribution functions
|(x)|2 (bottom). There are
locations where there is zero
probability of finding the
particle.
Wave functions must be
normalized so that the integral of
|(x)|2 over all x equals 1 (which
means there is 100% probability
of finding the particle
somewhere).
Follow Example 40.4.
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 Particle in a box: Newtonian Probability
What would the probability
distribution function be for the
Newtonian case? Note: you are
observing at a random time.
Which is correct, the Newtonian
case or the quantum case?
How does the Newtonian case
connect to the quantum case?

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 CAUTION: Wavefunction diagrams are stupid
What is the y-axis in diagram (a)?
Which energy level has the highest
amplitude wavefunction?
What does a negative value of psi
mean?

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education Inc.

 CAUTION: Wavefunction diagrams are stupid
In the animation, blue is the real part
of the wavefunction Psi(x,t) and red
is the imaginary part of the
wavefunction Psi(x,t). What does an
imaginary wavefunction mean?
Why are wavefunctions B, C, and D
moving?
How does the motion affect physics?
Why then do we even care about the
full Psi(x,t)?
2 n x
n ( x) sin (n 1, 2, 3,...) (particle in a box)
L L

( x, t ) ( x)eiEt /
(time-dependent wave function for a state of definite enegy)
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 Particle in a finite potential well I
A finite potential well is a region where potential energy U(x) is
lower than outside the well, but U(x) is not infinite outside the
well (see Figure 40.13 below).
In Newtonian physics, a particle whose energy E is less than the
height of the well can never escape the well. In quantum
mechanics the wave function of such a particle extends beyond the
well, so it is possible to find
the particle outside the well.
What is the kinetic energy of
the particle outside the well?
Follow Example 40.5.

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 Potential Wells
A potential well is a potential-energy function U(x) that has a
minimum
Finite well, which is a potential well with straight sides but finite
height
Bound state, where the particle is trapped when the total mechanical
energy E is less than U0
Outside the well
Inside the well

Comparing finite and infinite square wells

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Q40.6
The first three wave
functions for a finite square
well are shown. The
probability of finding the
particle at x > L is
A. least for n = 1.
B. least for n = 2.
C. least for n = 3.
D. the same (and nonzero) for
n = 1, 2, and 3.
E. zero for n = 1, 2, and 3.

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A40.6
The first three wave
functions for a finite square
well are shown. The
probability of finding the
particle at x > L is
A. least for n = 1.
B. least for n = 2.
C. least for n = 3.
D. the same (and nonzero) for
n = 1, 2, and 3.
E. zero for n = 1, 2, and 3.

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 Terminology
Stationary state
Ground state
Excited states
Non-stationary state
Bound states
Continuum
Quantum Number
Energy Levels
Play a matching game?

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 Illustration 1: Animation
http://www.st-
andrews.ac.uk/physics/quvis/embed_item_3.php?anim_id=18&file
_sys=index_phys
Compares finite depth well to infinite depth well.

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 Particle in a finite potential well II
Figure 40.15 (below left) shows the stationary-state wave
functions (x) and corresponding energies for one particular finite
well.
Figure 40.16 (below right) shows the corresponding probability
distribution functions |(x)|2.
Follow Example 40.6.

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 Illustration 2: Applet
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/bound-
states

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 Potential barriers and tunneling
Figure 40.19 (below left) shows a potential barrier. In Newtonian
physics, a particle whose energy E is less than the barrier height U0
cannot pass from the left-hand side of the barrier to the right-hand side.
Figure 40.20 (below right) shows the wave function (x) for such a
particle. The wave function is nonzero to the right of the barrier,
so it is possible for the particle to tunnel from the left-hand side
to the right-hand side.
Follow Example 40.7.

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http://phys.educ.ksu.edu/vqm/html/qtunneling.ht
ml
 Applications of tunneling
A scanning tunneling microscope measures
the atomic topography of a surface. It does
this by measuring the current of electrons
tunneling between the surface and a probe
with a sharp tip (see Figure 40.21 below).
An alpha particle inside an unstable
nucleus can only escape via tunneling (see
Figure 40.22 at right).

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http://condensedconcepts.blogspot.com/2009/07/quantum
-biology-tunneling-in-enzymes.html
 A comparison of Newtonian and quantum oscillators
Figure 40.26 (below, top) shows the first four stationary-state wave
functions (x) for the harmonic oscillator. A is the amplitude of
oscillation in Newtonian physics.
Figure 40.27 (below, bottom) shows the corresponding probability
distribution functions |(x)|2. The blue curves are the Newtonian
probability distributions.

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education Inc.

 A comparison of Newtonian and quantum oscillators
Figure 40.26 (below, top) shows the first four stationary-state wave
functions (x) for the harmonic oscillator. A is the amplitude of
oscillation in Newtonian physics.
Figure 40.27 (below, bottom) shows the corresponding probability
distribution functions |(x)|2. The blue curves are the Newtonian
probability distributions. Why is psi_3(x) asymmetric if U(x) is symmetric?

Why does the Newtonian (blue) curve have this shape?

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Q40.8
The figure shows the first six
energy levels of a quantum-
mechanical harmonic
oscillator. The corresponding
wave functions

A. are nonzero outside the region allowed by

Newtonian mechanics.
B. do not have a definite wavelength.
C. are all equal to zero at x = 0, by symmetry
D. Both A. and B. are true.

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A40.8
The figure shows the first six
energy levels of a quantum-
mechanical harmonic
oscillator. The corresponding
wave functions

A. are nonzero outside the region

allowed by Newtonian mechanics.
B. do not have a definite wavelength.
C. are all equal to zero at x = 0.
D. Both A. and B. are true.
E. All of A., B., and C. are true.

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Q40.9
A particle in a potential well emits a photon when it drops from
the n = 3 energy level to the n = 2 energy level. The particle then
emits a second photon when it drops from the n = 2 energy level
to the n = 1 energy level. The first photon has the same energy as
the second photon. What kind of potential well could this be?
A. an infinitely deep square potential well (particle in a box)
B. a harmonic oscillator
C. either A. or B.
D. neither A. nor B.

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A40.9
A particle in a potential well emits a photon when it drops from
the n = 3 energy level to the n = 2 energy level. The particle then
emits a second photon when it drops from the n = 2 energy level
to the n = 1 energy level. The first photon has the same energy as
the second photon. What kind of potential well could this be?
A. an infinitely deep square potential well (particle in a box)
B. a harmonic oscillator
C. either A. or B.
D. neither A. nor B.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.