3.

4
Fallacies of Presumption,
Ambiguity, and Grammatical
Analogy
Overview

Fallacies of presumption

Fallacies of ambiguity

Fallacies of grammatical analogy

Different fallacies of presumption

Begging the question (Petitio principii)

Occurs when the arguer creates the illusion that inadequate premises
provide adequate support for the conclusion by leaving out a possibly
false (shaky) premise by restating it as the conclusion or by reasoning
in a circle.
The shaky premise usually cant be verified as true or not, which is why
its left out, since it undermines the argument. So the arguer creates
the illusion that the premise supports the conclusion when it does not.
Example:
McDonalds cheeseburgers are bad for you. Just look at how greasy they are!
The premise left out here could be framed as Greasy cheeseburgers are
bad for you.
Smirnoff makes the best drinks because theyre so tasty. They taste good
because they can afford to bottle them with the best flavors added in. Because
its such a wealthy drink distributor, Smirnoff has to be the best drink makers
around!
Its not clear where the reasoning process begins since it just goes in
circles. The question of why is never answered.
More fallacies of presumption

Complex question
Occurs when two or more questions are asked in the form of a single question
and a single answer is given to both.
Every complex question presumes that a certain condition is already true, and
the response of the listener confirms that condition. The question is intentionally
framed this way.
Example:
So are you still cheating on your tests?
Whether a yes or no answer is given, it still leads to the listener confirming something
that is probably not true.
Two questions are really being asked. Have you ever cheated on tests? and If you
cheated in the past, have you stopped?
This can be a hard fallacy to defeat, since it is easy to be roped into admitting
something that may not be true. To defeat a complex question, its best to break
the question down into its two individual questions and answer each one
separately.
More fallacies of presumption

False dichotomy
This one occurs when an arguer offers the listener two alternative
answers to a question, as though they were the only possible options.
Usually these are poor choices since there is a third one that provides a
better answer to the question.
Fallacy occurs when the alternatives provided to the listener are false or are
probably false. When one of them is true, then no fallacy is committed.
Examples:
Either you give me $20 or Ill hate you forever.
Its clear that there are other options beyond being hated and giving up
money.
Either you eat beef jerky or youre not a real man. You told me you dont eat beef
jerky, therefore its clear youre not a real man.
Judging someones manhood can be done in other ways besides eating beef
jerky, so its clear this is a poor set of choices.
More fallacies of presumption

Suppressed evidence
Occurs when an argument leaves out an important fact that is relevant
to the premises and how well they support the conclusion.
The evidence left out typically would support a different conclusion than the
one given.
Examples:
Your car is as good as new. I mean, look at that paint job!
This may sound like a good argument, but what if we consider that the car
has an oil leak and hasnt been serviced in fifteen years? It may look new
but that doesnt mean it will run like new. Evidence like this is important to
the conclusion, so its clear that it was left out for a reason.
Youve lived on $1000 for the past year, so you wont have any trouble living off
that much for another year or so.
What if we learn that the listener is going to have a baby soon? Or is
getting ready to buy a new car? This would have a big impact on her
finances, and ties in greatly with how well the premises work together with
the conclusion.
Fallacies of ambiguity

Equivocation
Occurs when a conclusion depends on the fact that a word is used, but
its used in two different senses within the argument.
Examples:
Bad people should be put in jail. Im a bad salesman, therefore I should also be
put in jail.
The word bad is used differently in the premise than it is in the
conclusion, so a fallacy is committed here.
You told me the crate over there was light, but I cant see anything inside it.
The listener took the word light to mean something that acts as a source of
light, and not as something that doesnt weigh much.
Pete said he got stoned last night but I think hes lying. He doesnt have any
bruises.
More fallacies of ambiguity

Amphiboly
The arguer misinterprets an ambiguous statement and draws a
conclusion based on that faulty interpretation.
Examples:
There will be a talk tomorrow over coffee in the cafeteria. It must be the case
that coffee has become a popular topic for discussion.
Its not clear whether the talk will be about coffee, or if coffee will be drank
while they talk.
You told me that Im looking pretty blue. It follows that I look like a blueberry.
Theres two possibilities, that the speaker is depressed or that his skin is
turning blue.
Fallacies of grammatical analogy

Composition
Occurs when properties of a things parts are improperly transferred
over to the whole.
Example:
Each ingredient in this recipe tastes bad. Therefore, the finished dish will also
taste bad.
Each atom in this chalkboard is invisible. It follows that the chalkboard is
invisible.

Division
The opposite of composition. Occurs when properties of a class of
things are improperly transferred to its individual parts.
Example:
This pitcher of tea tastes sweet. Therefore, the tea leaves in it must taste sweet.
That painting on the wall appears brown. Therefore, all the paint on it must be
brown.
On composition and division

Composition/division can be confused with the converse

accident/accident fallacies.
But composition and division deal with classes of things, while
converse accident and accident only make general claims.
Examples:
My Pontiac has broken down twice in the past month. Pontiacs must all be
junk! (Converse accident)
My Pontiac gets good gas mileage. All Pontiacs must get good gas mileage.
(Composition)

Christians tend to go to church. Youre a Christian, so you must go to

church. (Accident)
Youre studying at a rich college. Therefore, you must be rich. (Division)