AC Motor and Drive Theory Course Sept16

Control Systems for AC Motors
Section 1: Introduction to Motor Theory
Copyright Liebherr 2014

1
 Faradays Law: Any change in the magnetic environment of
a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in
the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the
voltage will be generated. The change could be produced
by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet
toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of
the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the magnet,
etc.
EMF =B(Flux Density)x L(Coil Length)x V(Velocity Δ)

2 AC Motor Theory
LEFT HAND RULE

3 AC Motor Theory
DC MOTORS
Armature Current iA (RED)

Field Current iF (Blue)
Torque increases with increase in iA and iF
Generated Armature Voltage ∝ iF and Armature Speed

4 AC Motor Theory
FIELD WEAKENING ON DC MOTORS

In order to run motor above base speed the Field voltage must be
reduced with a resulting reduction in torque, this is known as field
weakening
5 AC Motor Theory
FIELD WEAKENING ON DC MOTORS
CONSTANT POWER
REGION
CONSTANT
TORQUE REGION

BASE SPEED FULL SPEED
6 AC Motor Theory
Providing voltage for a dc motor
Thyristor phase control
• Direct voltage is generated from the available three-phase alternating

current, whereby one of six thyristors is ignited at the respectively
precise time.
DC link voltage

7 AC Motor Theory
DC Drive Control
Direct current motor
Pros
• Easy to implement a variable speed control
• Cost-saving and straightforward power electronics
Cons
• The motor has to be equipped with carbon brush (intensive
maintenance, no extremely high rotation speeds possible)
• a high degree of protection of enclosure increases the costs extensively

9 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor

10 AC Motor Theory
When people refer to asynchronous motors, they are generally referring to AC
induction motors. A typical “squirrel cage”AC induction motor has a stationary winding
called a stator and a rotor that is made from electrical steel and conductive bars of
aluminium or copper which are shorted on each end. In an induction motor, the input
current creates a rotating magnetic field in the stator. This changing magnetic field
induces currents in the rotor's conductive bars which results in an attraction between
the rotating magnetic field of the stator and the induced magnetic field of the rotor.

11 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
Direct current motor: Induction motor:
Field coil is in fixed position rotating magnetic field

12 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
Stator with 3
Phase windings Squirrel Cage
Rotor
Junction Box
Why choose induction Motors?

Induction motors are the most common motors used in industry.
Their popularity is due to their simple design,

they are inexpensive (half or less of the cost of a DC motor)
High power to weight ratio (about twice that of a DC motor)
easy to maintain
can be directly connected to an AC power source
13 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor

14 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
• Stator laminations
are stacked
together to form a
hollow cylinder.
• Coils of insulated
wire are inserted in
the slots of the
stator core.

15 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
• Stator windings are

connected directly to
the power source.
• Each group of coils is
surrounded by a steel
core which becomes an
electromagnet when
current is applied

16 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
• Each stator phase

acts like the coil of an
electromagnet
seperated by an
angle of 120° from
each other.

17 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor

18 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
• Principle of
electromagnetic
induction.

19 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
• Principle of Electromagnetic attraction.

20 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
Instead of a permanent magnet rotor, a squirrel cage induction motor
induces a current in its rotor, creating an electromagnet.
As the following illustration shows, when current is flowing in a stator
winding, the electromagnetic field created cuts across the nearest rotor
bars.

21 AC Motor Theory
Induction motor
When a conductor, such as a rotor bar, passes through a magnetic field, a voltage
(emf) is induced in the conductor..
The induced voltage causes current flow in the conductor. In a squirrel cage rotor,
current flows through the rotor bars and around the end ring and produces a
magnetic field around each rotor bar.
Because the stator windings are connected to an AC source, the current induced in
the rotor bars continuously changes and the squirrel cage rotor becomes an
electromagnet with alternating north and south poles.

22 AC Motor Theory
The Rotor Construction

The skew in the rotor bars are to prevent
torque fluctuation and vibration.
23 AC Motor Theory
„Lenz‘s law“:
An induced electromotive force (emf) always
gives rise to a current whose magnetic field
opposes the original change in magnetic flux.
In other words:
The rotor is searching a condition
where the magnetic field doesn‘t
change for itself anymore.
Russian Physicist –

Professor at St Petersburg
University *
24 AC Motor Theory
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED = 120 x FREQUENCY
# OF POLES
EXAMPLE: 120 x 60 = 1,800 RPM

4
The speed of an AC induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the

applied voltage.
25 AC Motor Theory
MOTOR SLIP
The interaction of currents flowing in the rotor bars and the

stators' rotating magnetic field generates a torque. In an actual
operation, the rotor speed always lags the magnetic field's speed,
allowing the rotor bars to cut magnetic lines of force and produce
useful torque.
Slip% = (Sync – Actual) x 100
Sync
EXAMPLE:
A 4-pole motor operating from a 60 hertz
electrical supply has a synchronous speed of
1,800 rpm. If the actual operating speed is
1,750 rpm., the slip is found by subtracting

1,750 from 1,800, dividing the result by 1,800,
then multiplying this by 100, which equals a
slip of 2.8%.
26 AC Motor Theory
MOTOR SLIP
When the motor is loaded, the rotor speed drops, or slips until the
induced voltage resulting from the speed difference V between the field
and conductors produces enough current, and hence force, to balance
the load.
As load increases, rotor slows down, slip

increases, torque increases
ROTOR
LOAD = = SLIP = TORQUE
SPEED

SLIP IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VARIABLES FOR INDUCTION MOTORS
27 AC Motor Theory
Induction Motor
• Frequency: 50 Hz
• Power: 15 kW
• Rpm: 2910 1/min
• Voltage: 380 V star

220 V delta
• Current: 29 A star
50 A delta
• Degree of protection of enclosure:

IP 54

28 AC Motor Theory
Induction Motor
Insulation Classes
• Define the ability of motor insulation to withstand heat

• 4 Classes: A,B,F and H
• Define the allowable temperature rise from ambient temperature of 400C
• Classes B and F are the most common

29 AC Motor Theory
Induction Motor
Torque Speed Relationship
REMEMBER
P = τ x 2π x ω
OR
Power[kw] = M[Nm] x n[rpm] / 9550
Τ = Torque (Nm) ω = angular velocity (m/s)

30 AC Motor Theory
Speed Torque Curve
• At start up the rotor is stationary

relative to the magnetic field thus a
current is induced in the rotor, torque
is generated and the rotor begins to
move up towards synchronous speed
• Above Pullout torque the motor will

stall!
• Slip can also be positive, when the

• Start Torque is sometimes referred to motor is generating – lowering a load
as locked rotor torque

• When at standstill but under load a very low frequency voltage is put to the
motor to maintain slip, torque is adjusted by increasing the voltage
31 AC Motor Theory
Starting Current and Full Load Current
Starting current, also referred to as locked rotor current, is the current supplied to
the motor when the rated voltage is Initially applied with the rotor at rest.
Full-load current is the current supplied to the motor with the rated voltage,
frequency, and load applied and the rotor up to speed. For a NEMA B motor,
starting current is typically 600-650% of full-load current.

32 AC Motor Theory
Supply Frequency, Voltage and Torque
• The relationship between rotor speed (s) and supply frequency (f)
• At a fixed Supply Voltage (v)
• At a fixed supply frequency (f)
So if the torque is to remain constant throughout the speed range, voltage

and frequency must be increased at the same time

33 AC Motor Theory
Supply Frequency, Voltage and Torque
The relationship between Speed, Frequency, Voltage and Torque

34 AC Motor Theory
Field Weakening Example
Some applications require the motor to be operated above base speed.
Because applied voltage must not exceed the rating plate voltage, torque
decreases as speed increases, this is referred to as the constant power
range or Field Weakening because any change is speed is compensated
by the opposite change in torque
CONSTANT
POWER

If a motor is operated in both the constant torque and constant power
ranges, constant volts per hertz and torque are maintained up to the rated
frequency. Above this frequency the volts per hertz ration decreases with a
35
corresponding decrease in torque.
AC Motor Theory – Field Weakening

36 AC Motor Theory – Field Weakening
A Field Weakening Factor (FFW) can be used to calculate the amount of

torque reduction necessary for a given extended frequency
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 2
FFW = 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
For example a 50Hz motor can only develop 69% rated torque at 60Hz

37 AC Motor Theory – Field Weakening
4 Quadrant Motor Operation
When the slip is positive, i.e.

the rotor is rotating faster
than the field, the motor is
braking
The reverse energy can be

burnt off through resistors OR
used to reverse power the
rectifier to generate
electricity to the grid

38 AC Motor Theory
TORQUE DIRECTION
MOTORING BRAKING
TORQUE TORQUE TORQUE
kg kg kg

HOISTING PRE-MAG LOWERING
39 AC Motor Theory
Encoder Connection
• An Encoder is fitted to
the shaft of one motor
per drive.
• This provides both speed
and position of the rotor
feedback to the drive.

40 AC Motor Theory
Encoder Connection
• 5V TTL Encoder used for Encoder Connection to FC302

resistance to noise.

41 AC Motor Theory
Encoder Direction
• Two pairs of pulses are created when
the encoder is turned.
• A and B pulses are 90° apart.
• To change the encoder direction A and

B pulse wires can be switched with
each other.

42 AC Motor Theory
Motor Direction
• Terminal U/T1/96 connected to U-phase
• Terminal V/T2/97 connected to V-phase
• Terminal W/T3/98 connected to W-phase
• Motor Direction can be changed by switching two phases.

43 AC Motor Theory
Motor Speed
Controlling Motor Speed

Motor speeds can be controlled by using the v/f principle, whereby
Voltage and frequency are increased proportionally
Open loop – With a calculated motor speed, Simple for general speed
control but not accurate particularly at low speeds
Closed Loop - Accurate control of torque and speed
Flux Vector Control – Using a motor model algorithm

44 AC Motor Theory
General Closed Loop Flux Control
The rotor current, magnetic flux and slip cannot be measured

They must be calculated mathematically using
the known motor characteristics
45 AC Motor Theory
Motor Equivalent Circuits
The equivalent circuit of any machine shows the various parameter of the
machine such as its Ohmic losses and also other losses. The losses are modelled
just by inductor and resistor. The copper losses occur in the windings so the
winding resistance is taken into account. Also, the winding has inductance for
which there is a voltage drop due to inductive reactance and also a term called
power factor comes into the picture. There are two types of equivalent circuits in
case of a three-phase induction motor

46 Footer
Motor Equivalent Circuits

47 Footer
Rectifier Block Diagram
Diode rectifier
• Unlike the Thyristor controllers for the direct current motors, the mains voltage must first
be rectified for the voltage providers for the induction motors.
480𝑣𝑎𝑐 × 2 = 678𝑣𝑑𝑐

48 AC Motor Theory
Rectifier Block Diagram
IGBT converter
• By using an IGBT converter connected to the mains supply, the link voltage can be variably
modified between 0V and 750V (or even higher).
𝒅𝒊
𝑽=𝑳
𝒅𝒕

49 AC Motor Theory
Inverter Block Diagram
IGBT converter
• The IGBT converter for the motor is practically identical to the mains side converter, the
only difference being that the input variables and output variables are interchanged.

50 AC Motor Theory
A word about PI Controllers
PI-controller
• A PI-controller features a proportional action (P) which assures a quick compensation of
excessive control deviations, as well as an integral action (I) which is designed to dissipate
the smaller control deviations.
I
P
COMBINED

51 AC Motor Theory
Adjusting the controller

52 AC Motor Theory
P-factor
• too small:
The controlled variable requires a long time before it reaches the nominal value. The
nominal value may not even be reached at all.
• correct:
The controlled variable reaches the nominal value quickly and without any oscillations
occurring. If the I-factor is still at zero, the nominal value will not be fully reached.
• too great:
The controlled variable does indeed reach the nominal value quickly, however, does
not remain stable but rather begins to oscillate. If the P-factor is just a fraction too
great, this oscillation subsides. If the P-factor is far too great, the system swings up

and becomes unstable.
53 AC Motor Theory
I-factor
 too small:
Even after an extended period, there is still control deviation between the controlled
variable and the nominal value.
 correct:
When greater control deviations have already been compensated by the proportional
action, the controlled variable reaches the nominal value quickly and without
oscillations.
 too great:

Oscillations occur at the controlled variable.
54 AC Motor Theory
 Set the I-factor to zero and the P-factor to a low value.
 Note the step response of the controller.
 Continue to double P-factor until the closed-loop control circuit begins to oscillate.
 Halve the P-factor and set the I-factor to a low value.
 Continue to double the I-factor until the closed-loop control circuit begins to
oscillate or until the overshoot becomes too great.

 Halve the I-factor.
 The behaviour of the closed-loop control circuit can be optimised further by small
modifications of the I-factor and the P-factor.
55 AC Motor Theory
Duty Cycles
 In practice the crane motors are not under load 100% of the time
 Hoist motors are normally rated for 80% duty
 Trolley – 60%
 Travel - 40%

 Boom - 25%
56 AC Motor Theory
Duty Cycles
 A cycle drawing for calculating RMS Torque

57 AC Motor Theory
Duty Cycles
 A spreadsheet calculation of RMS Torque for a given cycle

58 AC Motor Theory
Hoist Motor
Air Filter Forced Air Cooling
Brake flange Plate

59 AC Motor Theory
Brake Controls
• Hoist Brakes
Normal braking is carried out using the 4 quadrant operation of the motor
i.e. using the motor as a generator to electrical brake the motion
The brake themselves are for holding the position once the motors are
not magnetized.

60 AC Motor Theory
Brake Controls
• Hoist Brakes
Hoist Brakes are released by electrohydraulic thrusters
Brakes are controlled by the hoist drive in series with the PLC
Premagnetization – The magnetic field required to hold the motor after

the brake is released to prevent free falling
Motor is Premagnetized while brakes are still applied
The Premagnetization is held for a period of time after the brakes are

reapplied
Brake position is monitored by a proximity switch
61 AC Motor Theory
Frequency converter

62 AC Motor Theory
FC overview
basic set-up:

63 AC Motor Theory
IGBT Module
3 half bridges
6 swiches

64 AC Motor Theory
IGBT Module
8 Switching possibilities

65 AC Motor Theory
PWM Waveform
switching frequency typical

1,5 – 4 kHz

methodology: pulse width
modulation (PWM)
50 switching cycles per sin-wave output

66 AC Motor Theory
PWM Waveform

67 AC Motor Theory
PWM Waveform

68 AC Motor Theory
PWM Waveform
The modulation of a PWM signal can be generated comparing a linear signal

(e.g. a saw tooth voltage) with an analog signal

69 AC Motor Theory
PWM Waveform
Combining a triangular waveform with a 3 phase sine wave to produce 3

pulses

70 AC Motor Theory
PWM Waveform
The frequency and amplitude values are constant – only
the pulse duty factor is changing

71 AC Motor Theory
PWM Waveform

PWM signal with pulse duty factor t1/T = 0,25 = 25%
72 AC Motor Theory
PWM Waveform

73 AC Motor Theory
IGBT
IGBT’s (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) provide the high switching speed
necessary for PWM inverter operation. IGBTs are capable of switching on and
off several thousand times a second. An IGBT can turn on in less that
400nanoseconds and off again in 500.
An IGBT consists of a gate, collector and an emitter. When a positive voltage

(typically +15 VDC) is applied to the gate the IGBT will turn on.

This is similar to closing a switch. Current will flow between the collector and
emitter. An IGBT is turned off by removing the positive voltage from the gate.
During the off state the IGBT gate voltage is normally held at a small negative
voltage (-15VDC) to prevent the device from turning on.
74 AC Motor Theory
Speed Ramps
A feature of AC drives is the ability to increase or decrease the voltage and

frequency to a motor gradually. This accelerates the motor smoothly with less
stress on the motor and connected load

Smoothing is a feature that can be added to the acceleration/deceleration curve.
This feature smooths the transition between starting and finishing a ramp –
Sometimes referred to as an S-Curve
75 AC Motor Theory
The AFE and Filter
The Active Front End is essentially a Bidirectional rectifier
It provides a unity power factor to the mains
It filters the harmonics of the inverters
It regenerates braking energy back into the mains
Two parts – the AFE and the Filter

76 AC Motor Theory
The Filter
FC SUPPLY LCRL-FILTER

77 AC Motor Theory
The Filter
Energy Direction
Hoisting

78 AC Motor Theory
The Filter
Energy Direction
Lowering
79 AC Motor Theory
Energy flow

80 AC Motor Theory
IGBT Release
• A hardwired control that blocks the IGBT gate

pulses thus switching off torque
• Also know as Safety Torque Off
81 AC Motor Theory
AMA – Automatic Motor Adaption
• A pre programmed process on a drive
• Runs a motor test to automatically measure the

motor characteristics
• Can be run as motor turning or not turning
• Allows for smooth operation across the speed

range
82 AC Motor Theory
Sinewave Filter
• A 3 phase inductor module

• Filters sinewave from PWM waveform
• In series with non inductive loads (not motors)
• Used where long cable runs are installed to
motors with high capacitance
• Used on the gantry travel motors
83 AC Motor Theory
Pre-Charging and discharge circuits
• Potential of DC link between AFE and Inverters must be

raised before AFEs come on line
• Closed on start up for pre set time
• Can be resistors or inductance to limit inrush current
• Resistors switched in on shut down to discharge

capacitors
• !!Always check for stored voltages before removing

covers!!
84 AC Motor Theory
Software and Parameterization
• Normally OEM software

• Allows functions to be adjusted to operation
of drive
• Multilevel access for safety
• Several parameter sets normally possible for
different set up
• Traces also possible
85 AC Motor Theory
PI Parameters
• The gain parameters can also be adjusted for

smooth acceleration and deceleration
• Good for tuning a drive to an operation
86 AC Motor Theory
Error Handling
• Drives normally have many error codes that

can be read
Warnings
Errors
Lock Outs
Programmable I/O
87 AC Motor Theory
Typical Configuration of Drives

88 AC Motor Theory
FINISH
THANK YOU

89 AC Motor Theory
90
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AC Motor and Drive Theory Course Sept16

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Control Systems for AC Motors

Section 1: Introduction to Motor Theory

Copyright Liebherr 2014

EMF =B(Flux Density)x L(Coil Length)x V(Velocity Δ)

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Armature Current iA (RED)

Torque increases with increase in iA and iF

Generated Armature Voltage ∝ iF and Armature Speed

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

• Direct voltage is generated from the available three-phase alternating

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Why choose induction Motors?

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

• Stator windings are

Copyright Liebherr 2014

• Each stator phase

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

• Principle of Electromagnetic attraction.

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

EXAMPLE: 120 x 60 = 1,800 RPM

The speed of an AC induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the

Copyright Liebherr 2014

The interaction of currents flowing in the rotor bars and the

Copyright Liebherr 2014

As load increases, rotor slows down, slip

Copyright Liebherr 2014

• Rpm: 2910 1/min

• Voltage: 380 V star

• Degree of protection of enclosure:

Copyright Liebherr 2014

• Define the ability of motor insulation to withstand heat

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Torque Speed Relationship

Power[kw] = M[Nm] x n[rpm] / 9550

Τ = Torque (Nm) ω = angular velocity (m/s)

Copyright Liebherr 2014

• At start up the rotor is stationary

• Above Pullout torque the motor will

• Slip can also be positive, when the

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014

• At a fixed Supply Voltage (v)

• At a fixed supply frequency (f)

So if the torque is to remain constant throughout the speed range, voltage

Copyright Liebherr 2014

The relationship between Speed, Frequency, Voltage and Torque

Copyright Liebherr 2014

Copyright Liebherr 2014