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Understanding how stars evolve requires both
observation and ideas from physics
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II-8b. Early Stages (Star Formation) and
Middle Age (Main Sequence)
(Main Ref.: Lecture notes; FK, Sec. 16-1,2, 18-2 through 8, 19-1)
• Dark nebulae are cool gas and dust so dense that they are
opaque. They appear as dark blots against a background
of distant stars when they are in our line of sight
• stars are born there!
• Why dark? Because dust grains and cool gas are dense
enough to block the way of light from background stars,
emission nebulae, HII regions, etc. (See class notes for
how it works.) 4
Emission Nebulae – Bright Red:
EX 28
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Fig II-42: Orion Nebula
EX 29
Fig II-47: the Milky Way Fig II-48: the Trifid Nebula
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(ii) Star Formation – Protostars and Birth
(Main Ref.: Lecture notes; FK Sec. 18-3 to 8; CD photos shown in
class)
• As already noted in Section (i), the interstellar matter (ISM) is not
uniform, but clumpy. New stars are formed in these clumpy, cool,
dense clouds called `dark nebulae’ in or near molecular clouds
(cool clouds with CO and H2 molecules). Bursts of protostar
formation takes place when these dense regions are hit by high
speed (`supersonic’, meaning speed faster than the sound speed)
winds from a near-by supernova explosion or UV light and winds
from near-by hot O and B stars shocks protostar
formation.
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Fig II-52: Mass Loss fromYoung, Massive Stars
O and B Stars and Their Relation to H II Regions
•The most massive protostars
to form out of a dark nebula
rapidly become main
sequence O and B stars
•They emit strong ultraviolet
radiation that ionizes
hydrogen in the surrounding
cloud, thus creating the
reddish emission nebulae
called H II regions
•Ultraviolet radiation and
stellar winds from the O and B
stars at the core of an H II
region create shock waves
that move outward through
the gas cloud, compressing
Fig II-53: Mapping Molecular Clouds the gas and triggering the
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formation of more protostars
Supernovae compress the interstellar medium
and can trigger star birth
EX 35
Protostar Lifetime:
• Short compared with the MS life time (age).
• Shorter for more massive stars.
• Why? More massive stars involve larger gravity contract faster
reach high enough temperature for H-burning faster!
EX 36
M = 1 M☉. t ~ 2 x 107 years,
compare with t(MS) ~ 1010 years
M = 15 M☉ t ~ 105 years,
compare with t(MS) ~ 107 years 21
where t(MS) = main sequence lifetime.
(iii) Middle Age – Main Sequence (MS)
Stars (Main Ref.: Lecture notes; FK Sec. 16-1,2, 18-4,
19-1)
• Stable and long, because:
(i) Nuclear energy source, H-burning, is stable and lasts
long
no gravitational contraction
mechanically balanced
Gravity supported by gas pressure (ideal gas) .
Note: Nuclear energy source ( = H-burning) stable and
lasts long.
(ii) Energy balance and transport:
Nuclear energy released in central core = Radiation energy
lost from the surface by photons, through transport from
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center to surface.
★Mass:
Exmples:
M = 25 M☉, tend ~ 4 x 106 years;
M = 15 M☉, tend ~ 1.5 x 107 years;
M = 3 M☉, tend ~ 8 x 108 years
M= 1 M☉, tend ~ 1.2 x 1010 years
M = 0.5 M☉, tend ~ 7 x 1011 years.
FK
See class notes and Fig. II-58
Fig. II-58: Stellar evolution of
For detailed explanation. MS and post-MS stars
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H-R Diagram: .MS star moves up and to the right or left somewhat.
Hence, MS stars lie on the strip from t = 0 to tend = end of MS.
Study Fig. II-58 and class notes.