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Chapter 7 - 1
Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals (Cu, Al):
+ + + + + + + +
Dislocation motion easiest + + + + + + + +
- non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
- close-packed directions ion cores
electron cloud
for slip
• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion difficult
- directional (angular) bonding
Chapter 7 - 2
Dislocation Motion
Dislocation motion & plastic deformation
• Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip – an edge
dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over
adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.
Screw dislocation
Chapter 7 - 4
Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage occurs
• Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings)
– Slip directions - directions of movement
• Highest linear densities
directions (close-packed)
=>BCC
– For total &
ofHCP
12 slip systems
there in FCC
are other slip systems. Chapter 7 - 5
Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Resolved shear stress, R
– results from applied tensile stresses
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: = F/A stress: R =Fs /A s and R
F slip plane R = FS /AS
A R
normal, ns
AS Fcos A/cos
nS
FS
F
ip
sl rec ti on
p ctio
n A
l i
di s re
R FS AS
F di n
ip ti o
sl rec
di
R cos cos
Chapter 7 - 6
Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: R CRSS
• Ease of dislocation motion depends typically
on crystallographic orientation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
R cos cos
R = 0 R = /2 R = 0
= 90° = 45° = 90°
= 45°
y 50.5 MPa
Chapter 7 - 10
Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Polycrystals stronger than
single crystals – grain
boundaries are barriers
to dislocation motion.
Adapted from Fig.
• Slip planes & directions 7.10, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(, ) change from one (Fig. 7.10 is
courtesy of C.
grain to another. Brady, National
Bureau of
Standards [now the
• R will vary from one National Institute of
grain to another. Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
• The grain with the
largest R yields first.
rolling direction
235 m
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.
Chapter 7 - 12
Anisotropy in Deformation
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
tantalum at a target. cylinder
machined
from a Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
rolled plate: side view Los Alamos
National Labs.
Used with
permission.
rolling direction
end plate
thickness
view direction
• The noncircular end view shows
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
Chapter 7 - 13
Four Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size
Chapter 7 - 14
Four Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Form Solid Solutions
A C
B D
Chapter 7 - 15
Lattice Strains Around Dislocations
Chapter 7 - 16
Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
• Small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
(regions of compressive strains) - partial cancellation of
dislocation compressive strains and impurity atom tensile strains
• Reduce mobility of dislocations and increase strength
Chapter 7 - 18
VMSE Solid-Solution Strengthening Tutorial
Chapter 7 - 19
Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tensile strength (MPa)
200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)
• Empirical relation: y ~ C 1/ 2
• Alloying increases y and TS.
Chapter 7 - 20
Four Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.
1
• Result: y ~
S
Chapter 7 - 21
Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan and
A.G. Miller, Boeing
Commercial Airplane
Company.)
1.5m
Chapter 7 - 22
Four Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (Strain Hardening)
• Deformation at room temperature (for most metals).
• Common forming operations reduce the cross-sectional
area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister & roll
Rethwisch 8e.
-Drawing force -Extrusion
Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao Ad
%CW x 100
Ao Chapter 7 - 23
Dislocation Structures Change
During Cold Working
• Dislocation structure in Ti after cold working.
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.
Chapter 7 - 24
Dislocation Density Increases
During Cold Working
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystals
ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
105-106 mm-2
Chapter 7 - 26
Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
Chapter 7 - 27
Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility after cold working Cu? 2 2
Do Dd
Copper %CW 4 4 x 100
Cold Do2
Work
4
Do2 Dd2
x 100
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm Do2
60
700 800
ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
600 60
tensile strength
ductility (%EL)
50 1. Recovery
500
40 2. Recrystallization
3. Grain Growth
400 30
ductility 20
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and
300 K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Re Re Gr Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
c ov c rys ain American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
e ry tal Gr
liz ow
ati t h
on
Chapter 7 - 30
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
Reduction of dislocation density by annihilation.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now R
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right
Chapter 7 - 31
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21(a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 7.21(a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21(c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 7.21(c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
Chapter 7 - 33
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21(d),(e),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 7.21(d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
TR
º
Chapter 7 - 35
Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm
Chapter 7 - 36
Diameter Reduction Procedure -
Problem
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 10 mm (0.39 in) in
diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of 380 MPa (55,000 psi) and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter
must be 7.5 mm (0.30 in). Explain how this may be
accomplished.
Chapter 7 - 37
Diameter Reduction Procedure -
Solution
What are the consequences of directly drawing
to the final diameter?
Brass
Cold
Work
Do = 10 mm Df = 7.5 mm
Ao Af Af
%CW x 100 1 x 100
Ao Ao
D 2 4 7 .5 2
1 f x 100 1 x 100 43.8%
D 2 4 10
o
Chapter 7 - 38
Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Solution (Cont.)
420 540
380 15
12 27
Chapter 7 - 42
Cold Working vs. Hot Working
Chapter 7 - 43
Grain Size Influences Properties
Chapter 7 -
Summary
Chapter 7 - 45
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:
Chapter 7 - 46