SENSORS

AND
MACHINE VISION
 Introduction to Sensors

 What are Sensors?
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Definition
 A device which provides a usable output in response to a
specified measure.
 A sensor acquires a physical parameter and converts it into a
signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical,
mechanical)

 A transducer
 Microphone, Loud Speaker, Biological Senses (e.g. touch,
sight,…ect)
 
 Def. 1. (Oxford dictionary)
 A device giving a signal for the detection or
measurement of a physical property to which it
responds.
 Def. 2.
 A sensor is a device that receives a signal or
stimulus and response with an electrical signal.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
SENSORS

 Attributes which can be used to classify sensors:
 . stimulus
 . working principle
 . properties (attributes of the characteristic)
 . application

 
 Measurements
 Heisenberg (1927): ”The momentum and position of a particle can not both be precisely
determined at the same time.”
Measuring activity disturbs the physical process (loading effect).
 Measurement error:
 That is the difference between the measured value and the true value.
error = measured value - true value
 Deterministic errors:
 They are repeated at every measurement, e.g. reading offset or bias. Such
errors can be corrected by calibration.
 Random errors:
 They are caused by several parameters and change in time in an
unpredictable fashion. They can be quantified by mean errors, standard
deviation.
 Precision:
 Measurements with small deviation
 Accuracy:
 Measurements with small errors, i.e. small bias and high precision.
 Sensor properties

 A sensor should represent a physical variable as fast
and as accurately as possible.
 A sensor is represented by its characteristic.
 Ideally, the sensor characteristic is a straight line
 SENSOR
CHARACTERISTIC

 Full scale input (input span)
 A range of stimuli that can be converted by one
sensor.
 Full scale output (output span)
 Full scale output is the algebraic difference between
the output signals measured with maximum input
stimulus and with minimum input stimulus applied.
 SENSOR
CHARACTERISTIC

Accuracy : Error measurement
Sensitivity: change in output for unit change in input
Resolution: the smallest change in the signal that can be
detected and accurately indicated by a sensor.
Linearity: the closeness of the calibration curve to a
straight line.
Drift: the deviation from the null reading of the sensor
when the value is kept constant for a long time.
 SENSOR
CHARACTERISTIC

Hysteresis: the indicated value depends on direction of
the test (increasing and decreasing)
Repeatability (precision): the maximum deviation from
the average of repeated measurements of the same
static variable.
Dynamic Characteristics: A sensor may have some
transient characteristic. The sensor can be tested by a
step response where the sensor output is recorded
for a sudden change of the physical variable.
The rise time, delay time, peak time, settling time,
percentage overshoot should be as small as possible.
 Physical Principles

 Amperes’s Law
 A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a
force (e.g. galvanometer)

 Curie-Weiss Law
 There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic materials
exhibit paramagnetic behavior

 Faraday’s Law of Induction

 A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing
voltage/current (e.g. transformer)

 Photoconductive Effect
 When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance
of the material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)
 Need for Sensors

Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in
our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial
plants and countless other applications.

Without the use of sensors, there would be

no automation !!
 Imagine having to manually fill Poland Spring
bottles
Choosing a Sensor

 Temperature Sensor

 Temperature sensors appear in building, chemical
process plants, engines, appliances, computers, and
many other devices that require temperature
monitoring

 Many physical phenomena depend on temperature,

so we can often measure temperature indirectly by
measuring pressure, volume, electrical resistance,
and strain
 Temperature Sensor

 Bimetallic Strip
L  L0[1   (T - T0)] Metal A

Metal B
 Application
 Thermostat
(makes or breaks
electrical
connection with
deflection)
 Temperature Sensor

Resistance temperature device.

R  R 0[1   (T - T0)]

1 1 
  
R  R0 e  T T0 
 Accelerometer

 Accelerometers are used to measure
along one axis and is insensitive to
orthogonal directions

 Applications
 Vibrations, blasts, impacts, shock waves
 Air bags, washing machines, heart
monitors, car alarms

 Mathematical Description is beyond the

scope of this presentation. See me m Position Sensor
during lunch if interested

k b

Vibrating Base
 Light Sensor

 Light sensors are used in cameras,
infrared detectors, and ambient
lighting applications

 Sensor is composed of
photoconductor such as a
photoresistor, photodiode, or
phototransistor
I
p n

+ V -
 Magnetic Field Sensor

 Magnetic Field sensors
are used for power
steering, security, and
current measurements
on transmission lines

 Hall voltage is
proportional to
magnetic field I (protons)
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
x x x x x x +
x x x B x x x VH
x x x x x x -
I B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
VH 
n  q t
 Ultrasonic Sensor

 Ultrasonic sensors are used for
position measurements
 Sound waves emitted are in the
range of 2-13 MHz
 Sound Navigation And Ranging
(SONAR)
 Radio Dection And Ranging
(RADAR) – ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES !! 15° - 20°
 Photogate

Photogates are used in counting
applications (e.g. finding period of
period motion)
Infrared transmitter and receiver
at opposite ends of the sensor
Time at which light is broken is
recorded
 CO2 Gas Sensor

 CO2 sensor measures
gaseous CO2 levels in an
environment

 Measures CO2 levels in the

range of 0-5000 ppm

 Monitors how much

infrared radiation is
absorbed by CO2 Infrared Source IR Detector

molecules
 Motion sensors

 These transducers measure the following variables:
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and stress.
 Such measurements are used in mechanical
equipment such as servo-systems, robots, and
electrical drive systems.
 Motion sensors include the following types of
devices: potentiometers, resolvers, optical encoders,
variable inductance sensors (displacement),
tachometers (velocity), piezo-resistive sensors
(strain).
 Resolver

 Resolvers are used in accurate servo
and robot systems to measure
angular displacement. Their signal
can be differentiated to obtain the
velocity.
 The rotor is connected with the
rotating object and contains a
primary coil supplied by an
alternating current from a source
voltage vref. The stator consists of
two windings separated by 90o, with
induced voltages V01= K vref sin θ
V02= K vref sin θ
 Tachometer

 The permanent magnet
generates a steady and
uniform magnetic field.
Relative
 motion between the field and
the rotor induces voltages,
which is proportional
 to the speed of the rotor.
 The inductance gives the
tachometer a certain time
constant so that the
 tachometer cannot measure
fast transient accurately.
 Optical encoders

 These are optical devices to
measure angular
displacement and angular
velocity.
 A disk of an optical encoder is
connected to the rotating
shaft.
 The disk has patterns (holes).
 On one side of the disk there
is a light source and on the
other photo-detectors. When
the disk rotates the light is
going through the holes and
the photo-detectors generate
series of pulses.
 There are two types of optical
encoders: incremental and
absolute.
 Optical encoders

 The incremental encoder provides a pulse each time
the shaft has rotated a defined distance.
 The disc of an absolute encoder has several
concentric tracks, with each track having an
independent light source and photo detector.
 With this arrangement a unique binary or Gray
coded number can be produced for every shaft
position.
 LVDT
 The two secondary coils are

connected in the opposite
phase. When the core is in
the middle there is no
output voltage.
 Moving the core from the
central position unbalances
the secondaries, developing
an output.
Applications:
 To measure linear
displacement, e.g. for
measuring tube lengths in a
steel plant,
 applied in linear Vout
servomechanisms, etc.

displacement
LVDT

 Strain gauge

When external
forces are applied
to a stationary
object, stress and
strain are the
result.
Stress is defined
as
 Strain gauge

 Strain is defined as the amount of deformation per
unit length of an object when a load is applied.
Strain (ε) = ΔL/L
 Typical values for strain are less than 0.005 inch/inch
and are often expressed in micro-strain units:
1 μstrain = 106 strain
 Strain gauge

 Strain may be compressive or tensile and is typically
measured by strain gages.
 It was Lord Kelvin who first reported in 1856 that
metallic conductors subjected to mechanical strain
exhibit a change in their electrical resistance.
 This phenomenon was first put to practical use in the
1930s.
 Strain gauge

 Fundamentally, all strain gages are designed to
convert mechanical motion into an electronic signal.
 A change in capacitance, inductance, or resistance is
proportional to the strain experienced by the sensor.
 Strain gauge

 If a wire is held under tension, it gets slightly longer
and its cross-sectional area is reduced. This changes
its resistance (R) in proportion to the strain
sensitivity (S) of the wire's resistance. When a strain
is introduced, the strain sensitivity, which is also
called the gage factor (GF), is given by:
GF = (ΔR/R)/(ΔL/L)
 Strain gauge

 The ideal strain gage would change resistance only
due to the deformations of the surface to which the
sensor is attached.
 However, in real applications, temperature, material
properties, the adhesive that bonds the gage to the
surface, and the stability of the metal all affect the
detected resistance.
 Strain gauge

 Because most materials do not have the same
properties in all directions, a knowledge of the axial
strain alone is insufficient for a complete analysis.
Poisson, bending, and torsion strains also need to be
measured. Each requires a different strain gage
arrangement
 Strain gauge

 The deformation of an object can be measured by
mechanical, optical, acoustical, pneumatic, and
electrical means.
 The earliest strain gages were mechanical devices
that measured strain by measuring the change in
length and comparing it to the original length of the
object.
 Strain gauge

 The most widely used characteristic that varies in
proportion to strain is electrical resistance. Although
capacitance and inductance-based strain gages have
been constructed, these devices' sensitivity to
vibration, their mounting requirements, and circuit
complexity have limited their application.
 The photoelectric gage uses a light beam, two fine
gratings, and a photocell detector to generate an
electrical current that is proportional to strain. The
gage length of these devices can be as short as 1/16
inch, but they are costly and delicate.
 Strain gauge

 The first bonded, metallic wire-type strain gage was
developed in 1938. The metallic foil-type strain gage
consists of a grid of wire filament (a resistor) of
approximately 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) thickness,
bonded directly to the strained surface by a thin
layer of epoxy resin
Strain gauge

Strain gauge

 Application of Strain
gauge

 Strain gages are used to measure displacement, force,
load, pressure, torque or weight. Modern strain-gage
transducers usually employ a grid of four strain elements
electrically connected to form a Wheatstone bridge
measuring circuit.
 The strain-gage sensor is one of the most widely used
means of load, weight, and force detection.
 As the force is applied, the support column experiences
elastic deformation and changes the electrical resistance
of each strain gage. By the use of a Wheatstone bridge, the
value of the load can be measured. Load cells are popular
weighing elements for tanks and silos and have proven
accurate in many other weighing applications.
 Application of Strain
gauge

 Strain gages may be bonded to cantilever springs to
measure the force of bending.
 The strain gages mounted on the top of the beam
experience tension, while the strain gages on the
bottom experience compression. The transducers are
wired in a Wheatstone circuit and are used to
determine the amount of force applied to the beam.
 Application of Strain
gauge

 Strain-gage elements also are used widely in the
design of industrial pressure transmitters. Using a
bellows type pressure sensor in which the reference
pressure is sealed inside the bellows on the right,
while the other bellows is exposed to the process
pressure.
 When there is a difference between the two
pressures, the strain detector elements bonded to the
cantilever beam measure the resulting compressive
or tensile forces.
 Application of Strain
gauge

 A diaphragm-type pressure transducer is created
when four strain gages are attached to a diaphragm.
 When the process pressure is applied to the
diaphragm, the two central gage elements are
subjected to tension, while the two gages at the
edges are subjected to compression.
 The corresponding changes in resistance are a
measure of the process pressure. When all of the
strain gages are subjected to the same temperature,
such as in this design, errors due to operating
temperature variations are reduced.
 
MACHINE
VISION
SYSTEM
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Analysis of Image
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Binary Digital Conversion

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