DNA, RNA, Protein- Gene

Expression
 Genes Introduction
Genetic Code
The exact sequence of nucleotides on a DNA strand is the
genetic code.

Genome
The total genetic code of all of the DNA on all the chromosomes
is the genome. Each cell in the body has exactly the same
chromosomes and exactly the same genome.

Gene
A gene is a small portion of the genome - a sequence of
nucleotides that is expressed together and codes for a single
protein (polypeptide) molecule.
Cell uses the genes to synthesize proteins. This is a
two-step process:
i) The first step is Transcription.
ii) The second step is Translation
 Genes Introduction
Chromosome
Discrete unit of genome carrying many genes. Each chromosome
consists of very long molecule of duplex DNA and approximately
equal mass of proteins.

• The human genome consists of

two distinct parts:
Nuclear genome:
-- 25,000 – 30,000 genes
Mitochondrial genome:
-- 37 genes
• Each cell has its own copy or
copies of the genome.
 Genomes of Organelles
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are organelles derived from
endosymbiotic bacteria that are found within eukaryotic cells.
Both contain small genomes that are bacterial in their
fundamental properties.

The Chloroplast Genome

Green plant cells contain chloroplasts, the organelles that
perform photosynthesis.
• All known chloroplast genomes are circular DNA
molecules and each chloroplast contains several identical copies
of the genome.
• Many chloroplast genes encode proteins for
photosynthetic reactions and CO2 fixation.
• The chloroplast genome also encodes rRNA used in
chloroplast ribosomes, tRNA used in translation, several proteins
used
• in transcription and translation, as well as some other
proteins.
Mitochondrial Genomes

Mitochondria, the organelles that produce energy by respiration,

are found in most eukaryotic organisms.
• Mitochondrial genomes primarily encode proteins for
Respiration.
• They also encode proteins, rRNAs, and tRNAs for protein
synthesis. However, most mitochondrial genomes encode far fewer
proteins than those of chloroplasts.
• Human mitochondrial genomes are circular DNA molecule
of 6,569 nucleotides
The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Flow of genetic information

Cell

Transcription DNA

mRNA
Translation
Ribosome

Polypeptide
(protein)
The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
The central dogma of molecular biology was first
enunciated by Francis Crick in 1958.

It is re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970.

The central dogma of molecular biology deals with the

detailed residue-by-residue transfer of sequential
information.
It states that information cannot be transferred back from
protein to either protein or nucleic acid.

In other words, 'once information gets into protein, it can't

flow back to nucleic acid.'
This dogma proposed 3 steps of
information flow into one
direction only; they are:

Replication: transmit the genetic

information between parents and
progeny
Transcription : here the
information contained in a
section of DNA is transferred to a
newly assembled piece of
messenger RNA (mRNA).
Translation: here the mRNA is
then further translated into
protein.
 The Central Dogma

The Dogma is: DNA -> RNA ->

Protein
The Central Dogma is:
 DNA is transcribed to RNA
which is translated to
protein.

 Protein is never back-

translated to RNA or DNA;
and

 except for retroviruses,

DNA is never created from
RNA.

Furthermore, DNA is never

directly translated to protein.
DNA to RNA to protein.
Transcription
Transcription is the process by which the information
contained in a section of DNA is transferred to a newly
assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA). It is
facilitated by RNA polymerase and transcription factors.

Transcription occurs in the nucleus.

Translation
Translation is the process where ribosomes synthesize
proteins using the mature mRNA transcript produced
during transcription.

Translation occurs in the cytoplasm.

Special transfers of biological sequential
information
1. Reverse transcription (RNA→DNA)
 Reverse transcription is the transfer of information from RNA to DNA
(the reverse of normal transcription).

 This is known to occur in the case of retroviruses, such as HIV, as well

as in eukaryotes, in the case of retrotransposons and telomere
synthesis.

2. RNA replication (RNA→RNA)

 RNA replication is the copying of one RNA to another.

 Many viruses replicate this way.

 The enzymes that copy RNA to new RNA, called RNA-dependent RNA
polymerases, are also found in many eukaryotes where they are involved
in RNA silencing.
 Chromosome

Gene Expression
GENE

DNA

From gene
to
protein mRNA in nucleus

mRNA in cytoplasm

Polypeptide

ACTIVE
PROTEIN
Messenger RNA (mRNA)

 Messenger RNA contains genetic information. It is a

copy of a portion of the DNA.

 It carries genetic information from the gene (DNA)

out of the nucleus, into the cytoplasm of the cell
where it is translated to produce protein.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

 This type of RNA is a structural component of the

ribosomes.

 It does not contain a genetic message.

 The ribosomes are factories of protein synthesis.

 The function of rRNAs in ribosomes is not clearly

known. It is believed that they play a significant role
in the binding of mRNA to ribosomes and protein
synthesis.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)

 There are at least 20 species of tRNAs corresponding

to 20 amino acids present in protein structure.

 Transfer RNA functions to transport amino acids

to the ribosomes during protein synthesis.
The interaction of tRNA and mRNA in protein
synthesis.
Gene Expression

From gene
to
protein