INTRODUCTION OF

COMMUNICATION
by: ADZROOL IDZWAN BIN ISMAIL (Ph.D/ Assoc. Prof)
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the topic, student is expected
to be able to:

i. Define communication studies.

ii. Explain the main/principle concepts in

communication.

iii. Discuss the main functions of

communication.
Topic Contents

 Definition of Communication

 Communication Concepts

 Communication functions
 What is
Communication?

Generally;

Communication is an important aspect of

human behaviour and symbolizes the ability
to convey opinions, feelings, information,
body language, signs and ideas through
words which may be written or spoken.
 Communication
Definition
 Communication is derived from the English
translation, the communication is originated
from the Latin word ‘communicare’.

 Communicare means to make common or

create equality
 Communication is fundamental to the social
process. (Schramm ,1954)
 Communication
Definition
 Communication can be defined as social interaction
through messages (Gerbner ,1967).

 Dissemination of information, ideas, attitudes or

emotions of a person or group to another, usually
through certain symbols (Theodorson ,1969)\
 An interaction process that displays the message
(content meaning) and the meaning of communication
(meaning relationship) (Watzlawick, Beavin & Jackson,
1967).
 Communication
Definition

Delivery &
Distribution of
Information

Sharing of
Behavioural
Meaning &
Change
Understanding

Comm.
Focus
Communication Philosophy

Equality of
Ideas
Equality
of Trust

Equality
of
Values

Communication
Philosophy
Main Principle Concepts
 Functions of Communication

Information Agent Social

Persuasion networking
 


Agenda Setting Change

Observation
Agent
 


Entertainment Education Culture

Transmitter
  
 WEEK 2

COMMUNICATION
by: ADZROOL IDZWAN BIN ISMAIL (Ph.D/ Assoc. Prof)
The Communication
Process
 Objectives

◇ Define communication PROCESS

◇ Analyze the two BASIC models of

communication

◇ Explain the SEVEN (7) elements of the

communication process
The
communication
process

Communication is the process

of passing information from a
source to a receiver
 Encoding

◇ Encoding is putting thought or

information into words, signs or
symbols

◇ This allows the message to be

conveyed to the receiver
 Message

Message – is the information being

transmitted from the sender to the
receiver
 Decoding

◇ Is when the sender interprets the

message and gives it meaning
from his/ her perspective
 Feedback

◇ Is the response given to the

sender from the receiver.
◇ Allows the sender to determine if
the message was received and
how accurately it was received
 Noise

◇ Anything that disrupts the

communication process for
example language.
Communication
Models
Communication is classified into two
groups:
• Linear
• Non-linear
i. Interactive
ii. Transactional
Linear Model

Here information is Place your screenshot here

transmitted from sender to

receiver via a channel
without the sender receiving
any feedback
 Place your screenshot here

Linear Model
Example: Talking to a

person and that person is

ignoring you
Linear Model

Sender Message Receiver

 Linear Model

Example:

◇ Shannon & Weaver’s Model

◇ Berlo’s SMCR Model

◇ Schramm’s Model
Interactive Model
(Non-linear)

Here there is feedback; it allows the

sender to know that the message was
received.
Interactive Model

Example: Having a conversation with

someone
Interactive Model
Interactive Model

Example:
• Helica Model
• Westley & MacLean’s Model
Transactional Model
Transactional Model

Example :

Barnlund’s Transactional Model

Becker’s Mosaic Model

 Source

Channel Message

Elements of
communicatio
n
Receiver Effect

Feedback Interference
Source
The source is the origin of the idea. Source is
also famously known as sender. He may be an
individual or group though ultimately, it is an
individual who will act on behalf of the group.
The sender conceives the idea, prepares the
message, selects the channel of distribution
and decides who the receiver will be.
Message
It refers to the content that the sender passes on
to the receiver. It is the core of communication.
Messages can consist of symbols or words.
Transformation of an idea into a message by the
sender is known an encoding and converting
this message into some meaning by the receiver
is known as decoding. The message should be
clear so that the receiver understands it.
Channel
The channel is the medium through which a
message travels from sender to receiver. The
channel may be mass media or interpersonal.
Selection of channel depends on the message
to be conveyed, availability of channel, cost
and effectiveness of channel of distribution.
Channel

Is the medium used to transmit the

message
Receiver

The receiver is the person for whom the

message is intended. He is the most
important aspect of the communication
process which is a two way process and
incomplete without the receiver. Any
change or neglect on the part of the
receiver will hamper the entire process.
Effect
Effect is the change in behaviour of
the receiver on receiving the message
from the sender. He may ignore the
message or store it or dispose it or
even send a feedback to the source
depending on how the message has an
effect on the receiver.
Feedback

Feedback is the response the receiver gives to

the sender after the element of effect. Feedback
can be negative or positive depending on how the
message is encoded and decoded by the sender
and receiver respectively. Feedback in most cases
does not take place. It is an optional element of
communication that may or may not happen.
FRAME OF
REFERENCE
Communication
Context

• Each type and instance of communication will

have a specific context.
• A communications context can be thought of
as the environment or human eco-system, in
which communication takes place.
• Example:
i. Cultural context, historical context,
psychological, social and physical
factors at play.
Historical Context
• Involves the expectation of the speaker and the
audience in situations that happen regularly or
have happened in the past.
Psychological Context
• The psychological context refers to the mood
and emotions of the audience, as well as the
speaker to a lesser extent. For example, the
psychology of the audience will be different in
the morning of the first day than it will in the
evening of the last day.
Cultural Context
• Cultural context relates to the beliefs and
values of a group. It is always critically
important that a speaker understand the
cultural expectations of the audience.
Social Context
• Social context is a personal matter. It
involves the relationship of the speaker
and the audience and the expectations
involved in that relationship.
Physical Context
• There is a time and place for everything, and
that is where physical context comes in. The
physical context involves the actual location,
the time of day, the lighting, noise level and
related factors.
• Example:
A speaker at a political rally might shout,
pound the podium and use inflammatory
language to get an audience excited.
 COMMUNICATION
MODELS

◇ 1. Linear Models
◇ 2. Non-Linear Models
LINEAR
MODELS
Classical Model of
Communication
• It was developed by Aristotle,

one of the three pioneering

Greek Philosophers.
Aristotle’s Speaker-
Centered Model
• Greek philosopher-teacher
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.).
• Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric
is one of the earliest definitions
of communication
• “Rhetoric” is “the faculty of
observing in any given case the
available means of persuasion”
(Rhetoric 1335b).
• Aristotle attempted to work out a
theory of communication and
language.
Aristotle’s speaker-centered model
received perhaps its fullest development
in the hands of Roman educator Quintilian
(ca. 35-95 A.D.), whose Institutio Oratoria
was filled with advice on the full training

of a “good” speaker statesman .

Aristotle’s model of proof

a. Logos, inheres in the content or the message

itself
b. Pathos, inheres in the audience
c. Ethos, inheres in the speaker
 Aristotle’s Speaker-Centered Model

• Logos
the matter under
discussion
• Pathos
the reader's stake
in that matter
• Ethos
the claims of the
author
 Aristotle’s Model of
Communication
SPEAKER MESSAGE LISTENER

◇ Designed for public speaking/oration

◇ Speaker at the center of the communication process
◇ Speaker prepares a message for an intended
audience
◇ Message is intended to have an effect- influence the
audience
◇ Audience is seen to be passive and ready to be
influenced by the speaker's message

In other words, according to Aristotle a speaker sends a

message to an audience and the audience is affected by
the message received.
 Progress and
development
◇ Little development in Communications theory during the
intervening millenia

◇ Rapid progress in 20th Century

￭ espcially after World War II
 Laswell’s Model
“Who says what to whom in what channel with what effect”

◇ Harold Dwight Lasswell

￭ (1902-1978) American political scientist and
communications theorist

◇ World War II
￭ Chief of the Experimental Division for the
Study of War Time Communications at the
Library of Congress.
￭ Analysed Nazi propaganda films to identify
mechanisms of persuasion used to secure
the support of the German people for the war
 Laswell’s 5 Elements of
Propaganda
Propaganda entailed five key elements

◇ Lasswell assembled these elements into a model

and then turned the model into a simple question:
￭ “Who says what in which channel to whom with
what effect?”
(declassified in 1948)

◇ If you found the right answers to each of the five

elements of the question, then you could create
effective propaganda – unless, of course, too much
“noise” – unplanned static or distortion during the
communication process – resulted in the receiver
receiving a different message than the sender sent.
 “...bring the boys home.”

◇ For example, it was discovered

that “Help win the war” wasn’t
the most effective slogan to use
for selling war bonds.
◇ Appealed to men, but not
women.
◇ This led to the development of a
more effective slogan: “Help win
the war and bring the boys
home.”
Lasswell’s model
Harold Dwight Lasswell, the
American political scientist states
that a convenient way to describe an
act of communication is to answer
the following questions
◇ Who

◇ Says What
◇ In Which Channel
◇ To Whom
◇ With what effect?
According to Lasswell there
are three functions for
communication:

i. Surveillance of the environment

ii. Correlation of components of society

iii. Cultural transmission between

generation
◇ It suggests the message flow in a multicultural
society with multiple audiences. The flow of
message is through various channels.

◇ communication = “Control Analysis”,

◇ says = “Content Analysis”,

◇ channel = “Media Analysis”,

◇ To Whom = “Audience Analysis”

◇ With What Effect = “Effect Analysis”

Advantage of
Lasswell Model:

◇ It is Easy and Simple

◇ It suits for almost all types of

communication

◇ The concept of effect

Disadvantage of
Lasswell Model

◇ Feedback not mentioned

◇ Noise not mentioned

◇ Linear Model
 “Shannon-Weaver model of
communication”.

◇In 1948, Shannon was an American

mathematician, Electronic engineer
and Weaver was an American
scientist both of them join together
to write an article in “Bell System
Technical Journal” called “A
Mathematical Theory of
Communication” and also called as
“Shannon-Weaver model of
communication”.
◇ This model is specially designed to
develop the effective communication
between sender and receiver. Also they
find factors which affecting the
communication process called “Noise”.
At first the model was developed to
improve the Technical communication.
Later it’s widely applied in the field of
Communication.
 Elements

◇ Sender : The originator of message or the

information source selects desire message
◇ Encoder : The transmitter which converts the
message into signals
◇ Decoder : The reception place of the signal which
converts signals into message. A reverse process of
encode
◇ Receiver : The destination of the message from
sender
◇ Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder
to decoder through channel. During this process the
messages may distracted or affected by physical
noise like horn sounds, thunder and crowd noise or
encoded signals may distract in the channel during
the transmission process which affect the
communication flow or the receiver may not receive
 Practical Example of Shannon-
Weaver model of communication

Sender : Thomson

Encoder : Telephone (Thomson)

Channel : Cable

Noise : Distraction in voice

Reception : Telephone (Assistant)

Receiver : Assistant.
 Criticism of Shannon-Weaver
model of communication
◇ 1. One of the simplest model and its
general applied in various communication
theories
2. The model which attracts both
academics of Human communication and
Information theorist to leads their further
research in communication
3. It’s more effective in person-to-person
communication than group or mass
4. The model based on “Sender and Receiver”.
Here sender plays the primary role and receiver
plays the secondary role (receive the
information or passive)
5. Communication is not a one way process. If
it’s behaved like that, it will lose its strength. For
example: Audience or receiver who listening a
radio, reading the books or watching television
is a one way communication because absence
of feedback
6. Understanding Noise will helps to solve the
various problems in communication
The Shannon-Weaver Model
 BERLO
SMCR MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION

◇ The Berlo’s model follows the

smcr model this model is not

specific to any particular

communication.
 Elements
◇ Source: The source is were the message originates.

◇ Communication skills – It is the individual’s skill to

communicate (ability to read, write, speak, listen
etc…)

◇ Attitudes – The attitude towards the audience,

subject and towards one self for e.g. for the student
the attitude is to learn more and for teachers wants
to help teach.

◇ Knowledge– The knowledge about the subject one is

going to communicate for e.g. whatever the teacher
communicates in the class about the subject so
having knowledge in what you are communicating
◇ Social system – The Social system
includes the various aspects in society
like values, beliefs, culture, religion and
general understanding of society. It is
were the communication takes place
Note: We can communicate
only to the extent that the
social system allows, when we
communicate take social
system into account.
◇ Culture: Culture of the particular society
also comes under social system.
◇ Encoder: The sender of the message
(message originates) is referred as
encoder, so the source is encoding
the message here.

◇ Message

◇ Content – The beginning to the end of

a message comprises its content for
e.g. From beginning to end whatever
the class teacher speaks in the class
is the content of the message
◇ Elements – It includes various things
like language, gestures, body
language etc, so these are all the
elements of the particular message.
Content is accompanied by some
elements.
◇ Treatment – It refers to the packing of
the message. The way in which the
message is conveyed or the way in
which the message is passed on or
deliver it.
 Note: When it is too
much treatment also the
communication will not
happen properly
◇ Structure– The structure of the message how it
is arranged, the way you structure the message
into various parts.
 Note: Message is the same but if
the structure is not properly
arranged then the message will not
get to the receiver.
◇ Code– The code of the message means how it
is sent in what form it could be e.g. language,
body language, gestures, music and even
culture is a code. Through this you get/give the
message or through which the communication
takes place or being reached.
 Note: Only when the code is
proper, the message will be clear,
improper use may lead to
misinterpretation
Channel– It is nothing but the five
senses through this only we do. The
following are the five senses which
we use

◇ Hearing

◇ Seeing

◇ Touching

◇ Smelling

◇ Tasting
 ◇ This model believes that for an
effective communication to take
place the source and the receiver
needs to be in the same level, only

“
if the source and receiver are on
the same level communication will
happen or take place properly. So
source and receiver should be
similar
 Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR
model of Communication:
◇ No feedback / don’t know about the effect
◇ Does not mention barriers to communication
◇ No room for noise
◇ Complex model
◇ It is a linear model of communication
◇ Needs people to be on same level for
communication to occur but not true in real life
◇ Main drawback of the model is that the model omits
the usage of sixth sense as a channel which is
actually a gift to the human beings (thinking,
understanding, analyzing etc).
 Berlo S-M-R-C Model

◇ When one is
attempting to
convey an
emotionally complex
message, the Berlo
Model may be the
more appropriate
choice.
 Website design – Aristotle’s
“Rhetorical” principles (part 1)
◇ Ethos - ethos, from which we get the word "ethical,"
has to do with reputation or character, in other
words what other people think of us and whether
they feel they can trust us.
￭ In terms of digital design, ethos or credibility
is extremely important for you to keep in mind
because online trust determines whether
people feel your site and its message are
credible. Digital ethos can be constructed by
a number of factors, such as visual appeal,
organized navigation, and rich information
content. Yet the ancient Greek word ethos
also had another basic meaning, that of
habitual gathering place, and in some
regards, online ethos can also be seen as
whether a designer has constructed a site to
which people can return again and again, or
whether the site creates a sense of online
community through user interactions.
◇ Logos - logos, from which we get the word
"logical," concerns the logic and
consistency of the message being
communicated.
￭ In other words, does the content of
your site make sense and is it written
in a consistent tone or style?
Consistency also becomes important
in terms of overall site structure. A
poorly organized site with visually
confusing pages can undermine the
concept of logos, which in turn can
reduce the site's overall ethos. For
Aristotle, all points of the rhetorical
triangle were interrelated.
◇ Pathos - pathos, from which we get the
words "pathetic" and "empathy," deals with
the emotions, specifically those of the
audience. In classical rhetorical theory,
playing on an audience's emotions was seen
as a primary vehicle of persuasion, but in
more modern times, pathos has come to
mean any rhetorical act that addresses
audience expectations or information needs.
￭ In this regard, it is extremely important
that you understand and analyze the
audiences for your Web site,
anticipating their informational and
navigational needs at every click of your
site. That is why Jakob Nielsen and his
colleague stress using concise,
scannable text in all Web documents --
because that's the way most Web users
read.
 NON-
LINEAR
MODELS
SCHRAMM’S INTERACTIVE
MODEL
◇ Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the
first to alter the mathematical model of
Shannon and Weaver.
◇ It is a Circular Model, so that
communication is something circular
in nature.
◇ This model breaks the sender and
receiver model it seems
communication in a practical way. It is
not a traditional model.
◇ It can happen within our self or two
people; each person acts as both
sender and receiver and hence use
interpretation. It is simultaneously take
place e.g. encoding, interpret and
decoding.
◇ Encoder – Who does encoding or Sends
the message (message originates)

◇ Decoder – Who receives the message

◇ Interpreter – Person trying to understand

(analyses, perceive) or interpret

◇ Note: From the message starting to

ending, there is an interpretation goes on.
Based on this interpretation only the
message is received.
 Advantage of Schramm model of
communication

◇ Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can

change

◇ It shows why redundancy is an essential part

◇ There is no separate sender and receiver,

sender and receiver is the same person

◇ Assume communication to be circular in nature

◇ Feedback – central feature.

 Disadvantage of Schramm
Model of Communication

◇ This model does not talk about

semantic noise and it assume the

moment of encoding and decoding.

 Helical Model of
Communication
◇ In 1967, Frank Dance proposed the
communication model called Dance’s Helix
Model for a better communication process.

◇ The name helical comes from “Helix” which

means an object having a three-dimensional
shape like that of a wire wound uniformly
around a cylinder or cone. He shows
communication as a dynamic and non-linear
process
◇ As like helix, the communication process
starts very slowly and defined small circle.
Communicators share information only
with small portion of themselves to their
relationships. Its gradually develops into
next level but which will take some time to
reach and expanding its boundaries to the
next level. Later the communicators
commit more and share more portions
themselves.

◇ The process is evolutionary.

◇ It is dependent on its past.
 Conclusion
◇ Frank Dance included the concept of time
in his theory.

◇ According to this theory a communication

process is the product of what we learnt.
 Westley and MacLean’s Model
of Communication
◇ In 1957 Westley and MacLean’s model of
communication is proposed by Bruce
Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm S.
MacLean Jr (1913-2001). Being one of the
creators of journalism studies, Westley
served as a teacher at the University of
Wisconsin, Madison, between 1946 and
1968. Malcolm was director of University
of Journalism School (1967-74) and co
founder of the University College at
University of Minnesota.
◇ This model can be seen two contexts,
interpersonal and mass communication. And
the point of difference between interpersonal
and mass communication is the feedback. In
interpersonal, the feedback is direct and fast.
In the mass, the feedback is indirect and slow.
◇ Westely and Maclean realized that
communication does not begin when one
person starts to talk, but rather when a person
responds selectively to his/her physical
surroundings.
◇ It is a strong relation between
responds from surroundings and the
process of communication.

◇ Communication begins only when a

person receives message from
surroundings. Each receiver
responds to the message they
received based on their object of
orientation.
 Merits and Demerits:
◇ This model accounts for Feedback.

◇ It can account for different modes of

communication, i.e., for both interpersonal
communication and Mass communication.

◇ It is a predictive model of communication

and very descriptive also.
◇ It also account for non binary interactions,
this means that it will remain good even for
communications involving more than two
sources.
◇ Westley and Maclean communication
model is Two Dimensional.
◇ It cannot account for multi dimensions; this
means this model will not be applicable for
typical communication events that involve
broader context and wide range of
communication messages.
 The Johari Window Model
History
The ‘Johari’ window model is a convenient
method used to achieve this task of
understanding and enhancing communication
between the members in a group. American
psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham
developed this model in 1955. The idea was
derived as the upshot of the group dynamics in
University of California and was later improved
by Joseph Luft. The name ‘Johari’ came from
joining their first two names. This model is also
denoted as feedback/disclosure model of self-
awareness.
1. Open/self-area or arena – Here the
information about the person his
attitudes, behaviour, emotions, feelings,
skills and views will be known by the
person as well as by others.

◇ ‘Feedback solicitation’ is a process

which occurs by understanding and
listening to the feedback from another
person.
2. Blind self or blind spot – Information
about yourselves that others know in a
group but you will be unaware of it. Others
may interpret yourselves differently than
you expect. The blind spot is reduced for
an efficient communication through
seeking feedback from others.
3. Hidden area or façade – Information that is
known to you but will be kept unknown from
others. This can be any personal information
which you feel reluctant to reveal. This includes
feelings, past experiences, fears, secrets etc. we
keep some of our feelings and information as
private as it affects the relationships and thus
the hidden area must be reduced by moving the
information to the open areas.
4. Unknown area – The Information which
are unaware to yourselves as well as others.
This includes the information, feelings,
capabilities, talents etc. This can be due to
traumatic past experiences or events which
can be unknown for a lifetime. The person
will be unaware till he discovers his hidden
qualities and capabilities or through
observation of others. Open communication
is also an effective way to decrease the
unknown area and thus to communicate
effectively.
 TYPES OF
COMMUNICATION
messages
WHAT IS
COMMUNICATION?

“COMMUNICATION IS THE
PROCESS BY WHICH MESSAGES
ARE TRANSFERRED FROM
SOURCE TO A RECEIVER”
-ROGERS & SHOE MAKER
ONE WAY
COMMUNICATION
One way communication is characterized
by absence of feedback from the
receiver.
 COMMUNICATION

• Two way communication involves active feed-

back from the receiver to the sender to ensure
that the receiver has understood the message
in the same sense that sender intends to
convey.
VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication involves the use
of symbols that generally have
universal meanings for all who are
talking part in the process.

 Types of verbal communication

 ORAL COMMUNICATION
 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication is that channel of
communication in which message is
transmitted in spoken form.
WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION
Written communication is that in which
information is exchanged in the written
or printed form.
 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION

◇ Non –verbal
communication means
transmission of meaning
other than oral or written
words. This transmission
can be through facial
expression, body
posture, eye contact etc.
 Types of non-verbal
communication
 KINESICS:

it is the study of body movements

to judge inner state of emotions expressed
through different parts of the body.
 ◇ FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS

“
 ◇ GESTURES

“
 ◇ POSTURES

“
 ◇ PROXEMICS

“
PARALANGUAGE
It involves the study of voice quality, volume,
speed rate and the manner of speaking
beyond the words. E.g. shaky voice reveals
nervousness, clear voice reveals confidence,
broken voice reveals lack of preparation etc.
 FORMAL
COMMUNICATION
◇ Formal communication is
communication structured on
the basis of hierarchy, authority
& accountability.
 Types of Formal
Communication

UPWARD
COMMUNICATIO
N:
Sending of message
from subordinates
to superior
 DOWNWARD
COMMUNICATION

◇ It is the flow of
information from
superior to
subordinate in the
organisational
hierarchy.
 HORIZONTAL
COMMUNICATION

◇ It refers to the horizontal flow of message among

colleagues.
 INFORMAL
COMMUNICATION
◇ Informal communication is relatively less structured &
spontaneous communication arising out of day to day
routine & meetings among people.
 INTER-PERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
◇ Interpersonal communication is communication
among two or more persons. It is an important
element of the organisation.
 INTRAPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
◇ It is internal dialogue occuring within the mind of
an individual. It may be clear or confused
depending upon the individual’s state of mind.
Thanks!
Any questions?