Research Methodology

&
Technical Writing.

Presented
By

Dr. K.T.Subhaschandra.
Govt. R.C.Collge of Commerce
Bangalore – 560 001
 Module – 1.
 Meaning & Significance of Research in Management.
 Different Approaches to Research
 Scientific methods and non-scientific methods
 Types of Research:
 Historical Studies
 Case Studies
 Case Studies
 Survey & Experimental Studies
 Criteria of Good Research
 The Manager and Researcher Relationship.
 Module – 1.
Meaning and Definition of Research
 A search for knowledge/Movement from known to unknown or a voyage of
Discovery because of inquisitiveness or sprit of inquiry or curiosity.
 A systematic search for an answer to a question or a solution to a problem
is called research.
 Search for Facts/ Facts finding
 Answer to a questions and solutions to problems.
 It is purposive investigation or organised enquiry.
 Search for facts should be made by scientific method rather than by
arbitrary method then only we can get verifiable and accurate facts.
 Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on
a specific topic.
 Definition of Research
1. “A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge is called research”- The Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary.

2. As per Pauline v. Young A social research is “ the systematic method of

discovering new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter-
relationships, causal explanations and the natural laws which govern
them.”

3. Black and champion, “scientific research consists of obtaining information

through empirical observation that can be used for the systematic
development of logically related propositions attempting to establish
causal relations among variables.”
4. Clifford Woody defines “research comprises defining
and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggest solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating
data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.”

Thus, Research is an original contribution to the

existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help
of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of inquiry for finding solution
to a problem is research.
Characteristics of Research
 Systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon

 Not a mere compilation, but purposive investigation

 Adopts scientific method

 It is objective and logical,

 Based on empirical evidence

 Desired towards finding answers to pertinent questions, and

solutions to problems
 It develops generalization, principles or theories

 Test of criticism
Objectives of Research
The main aim of research is to find out the TRUTH which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own
specific purpose, the various research objectives fall into the following broad
groupings:

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new

insights into it. They are termed as exploratory / formulative
research studies.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual situation or a group. They are called descriptive
research studies.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else. They are called
as diagnostic research studies.
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variable.
they are called hypothesis testing research studies.
Other objective or purpose of Research
 Research extends Knowledge by Research findings. It answers
various types of questions: what, where, how and why or various
phenomena and enlighten us.
 Research brings to light information that might never be discovered
fully during the ordinary course of life. For Ex; marketing research
could result in discovery of new uses for old product.
 It establishes generalisations and general laws and contributes to
theory building in various fields of knowledge.
 It verifies and tests existing facts and theory / hypothesis and help
improving our knowledge and ability to handle situation & events.
 It enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen.
 Research aims to analyse inter-relationships between variables and
to derive causal explanations;
 Applied Research aims at finding solutions to problems… Socio-
economic problems (e.g., social unrest, unemployment, poverty)
health problems, human relations problems in organisations and
so on.
 It also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for a
better study of unknown phenomena.
 Research aids planning and thus contributes to national
development.
 Analytical studies of internal and external environment of
business and non-business organisations provides factual data
for rational decision making – formulation of strategies and
polices. Studies of their operational problems contribute to an
improvement in their performance.
Motivation in Research
The possible motives for doing research may be any one or more
of the following:
a) Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
b) Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
c) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
d) Desire to be of service to society;
e) Desire to get respect.
f) Others factors Viz., directives of government/government
authorities, employment conditions, curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and
awakening and so on.
Research in Business or Business Research
 Business Research is a systematic enquiry that provides
information to guide managerial decisions.
 The systematic and objective process of gathering,
recording and analyzing data for aid in making business
decisions.
 More specifically, Business Research is a processes of
planning, acquiring, analysing and disseminating relevant
data, information and insights to decision makers in ways
that mobilise the organisation to take appropriate actions
that, in turn, maximise business performance.
 Most of the Business Research are applied research
assumes importance since it is problem-oriented and
decision-oriented .
 There are lots of research topics in business a few such topics are :
1. Marketing policy:
– Pricing
• Advertising
• Service
• Channels of distribution
• Customer relation

2. Market Research
1. Brand name generation and testing
2. Test market
3. Product testing of existing products
4. Package design studies
5. Competitive product studies
6. Demand analysis – market potential
7. Sales potential and sales forecasts
8. Competitive pricing analysis
9. Plant/warehouse location studies
10. Channel performance studies
3. Research for financial decisions
• Research on cost of capital and capital structure
• Research on risk-return-patterns of projects
• Research on working capital management
• Research on capital structure
4. Research for personnel decisions
• Research on employee motivation
• Research on training and development
• Research on leadership: traits, absenteeism and job
satisfaction.
Factors stimulating our Interest in Studying Business
Research Methods
 Explosive growth and influence of the Internet.
 Stakeholders demand to be included in company decision
making process.
 Competition, both at Global and Domestic level is growing
and often coming from unexpected sources.
 More Government Interventions.
 Manager to consider more variables in making decision so,
increases manager’s need for better insight from such
information
 The quality of Management theories & models to explain
tactical & strategic results in HR, Marketing, Operations &
finance is improving by providing managers with more
Knowledge.
 Availability of Greater Computing power & Speed and in
turn it offers following advantage;
 Lower Cost of collection and processing of data.
 Better visualisation tools & High-speed downloads of images
allow researchers to help people visualise complex concepts,
which enriches measurement capabilities.
 Sophisticated techniques of quantitative analysis are emerging
to take advantage of powerful computing capability.
 Data-warehousing & Data-mining help more integration of data.
 MIS, EIS, ERP, E-CRM, & Expert Systems facilitates more and
faster access to information.
 New perspectives on established Research
Methodologies.
 Approaches to Research
There are two basic approaches viz.,
A. Quantitative Approach: It involves the generation of data
in quantitative form, which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in formal and rigid fashion.
Types of Quantitative Approach:
1. Inferential Approach:
This approach is to form a database from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population.
Research usually means Survey Research where a
sample of population is studied.
It is studied (Questioned/observed) to determine its
characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population
has the same characteristics.
2. Experimental Approach:
Characterized by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated
to observe their effect on other variables.
3. Simulation Approach:
It involves the construction of an Artificial environment
within which relevant information & data can be
generated.
This permits an observation of dynamic behaviour of a
system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.
The term “Simulation” in the context of business and
social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a
numerical model that represents the structure & the
structure of dynamic process., given the values of initial
conditions, parameters & exogenous variables, a
simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the process
over time.
Simulation approach can also be useful in building
models for understanding future conditions.
B. Qualitative Approach
 It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions & beaviour.
 It is function of research’s insights & impressions.
 This approach to research generates results either in non
quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis.
 Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective
techniques and depth interviews are used in the methodology
of research.
Scientific Method;
 Research is a scientific Endeavour it involves scientific method.
 It is a systematic step-by-step procedure following the logical
processes of reasoning.
 It is a means of gaining knowledge of the Universe.
 Science is independent of any particular subject matter.
 It is an objective, logical and systematic method of analysis of
phenomena, devised to permit the accumulation of reliable
knowledge.
Basis of Scientific Methods:
1. Reliance on evidence: Truth is established on the basis of
evidences, conclusion is admitted only when it is based on
evidence.
2. Use of relevant concepts
3. Commitment to objectivity. It is the hallmark of the scientific
method. i.e., basing conclusion on facts.
4. Ethical neutrality: It does not say that they are good or bad.
5. Generalisation: Science aims generalisation of facts.
6. Verifiability: The conclusions arrived at by a scientist should be
verifiable.
7. Logical reasoning process: It involves logical process
reasoning. Reasoning process is used for drawing inference
from the finding of a study or for arriving at conclusion.
INDUCTION METHOD:
It is one of the method of logical reasoning process. It consists
of studying several individual cases and drawing a
generalisation. It involves observation and generalisation.
Conclusions from Induction are tentative inferences and they
are subject to further confirmation based on more evidences.
DEDUCTION METHOD:
It is regarded as “reasoning from the general to the particular”
This method establishes a logical relationships between a major
premise, a minor premise and a conclusion. Ex: “all men are
mortal, A is a man Conclusion is A is mortal”
Requisites of a Scientific Method
• Careful and logical analysis of the problem.
• Definition of terms, concepts and statistical units and measures
so that others can understand exactly and be able to repeat the
analysis and test generalisation.
• Collection of data pertinent to the problem under study.
• Classification of data.
• Expression of variables in quantitative terms whenever possible
• Rigorous & exacting experimental or statistical procedure in
summarising the data.
• Sound logical reasoning as to the testing of hypothesis &
drawing generalisations.
• Statement s in unusable terms of the exact conclusion arrived
from the finding.
• Specific & clear statement of generalisation to facilitate checking
& testing by others.
• Complete elimination of personal equation.
• Complete & careful reporting of the research process.
Component of Scientific Approach
I. Procedural Components:
 Define the problem/research topic
 Establish hypothesis as cause and effect or solution to a problem.
 Collect data.
 Analyse the data & test hypothesis.
 Draw inferences.
II. Scientific Attitude:
Consistent thinking
Objective, dispassionate & unbiased devotion to collection & treatment of
fact.
Overcoming personal preconception & value judgment
Avoid personal & vested interest
Avoid wishful thinking .
Stubborn determination to analyse one’s own system of thinking & taking
nothing for granted without evidence, tests & proofs
Faith in the universality of cause & effect
Ardent curiosity & love of experimental enquiry
Self – Control
Keeping an open-mind.
 Research & Theory:
Theory provides conceptual model for research, Research in turn
contributes to theory.
 One of the myths about the theory is “It is perceived as speculative or
unsubstantiated or unrealistic or ivory – tower ideas.”
Kerlinlger Fred.N defines theory as “ A set of systematically interrelated
concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict
phenomena/facts.”
A theory may not only explain or predict phenomena, but also specify causal
relationships among variables or hypothesis. Example: “ the standard of living
of a family is the function of its income, size and life style.”
Theories start out as ideas. It is the extent to which ideas conform to basic
demands of proposition, formulation that determines whether or not they will
assume the stature of theory.
Theory and facts are interrelated. While a fact is an “empirically verifiable
observation and cannot produce a body of knowledge. A theory specifies the
relationships between facts or order them in a meaningful way. When the
related facts are gathered and studied , the development of science can take
place.
Criteria of Theory
They must be logically consistent. There must be no internal contradictions.
They must be interrelated
The statements must be exhaustive as to cover the full range of variations
concerning the nature of the phenomena in question.
The propositions should be mutually exclusive
They must be capable of being tested through research.
Components of Theoretical ideas:
Assumptions and ideas: they consist of testable premises about the nature of
selected aspect or selected aspects of social life.
They identify the major dimensions of social life that will be subjected to
empirical scrutiny. i.e., theory provides Frames of reference.
Concepts are abstractions: for example: group, motivation, democracy.
Variables are relational units of analysis that can assume designated sets of
values. E.g., age, educational level, income
Propositions are statements between or among variables
theory is the end – product of the above components
Theory V/s Hypothesis.
A hypothesis is formulated before empirical evidences or
facts are gathered. It deals with a narrow range of ideas. It is a
preliminary assumption adopted for the explanation of a
phenomenon. A theory, on the other hand, is a generalisation
arrived at after verification and it deals with a broader range of
facts. It is one of the sources of hypotheses.
The assembled facts are transformed by a researcher into
constructs. The constructs are then assembled into a provisional
hypothesis. When is tested and verified and found to be true, it is
designated as a scientific theory. When the theory is tested and
accepted by scientists as correct under the same conditions, it is
regarded as a law.
Use of Theory in Research
Theory is useful:
• In suggesting a problem / topic for study.
• In perdition of further facts
• In giving a hypothesis to be tested’
• In providing a conceptual model for delimiting the scope of
the study.
• In helping selection of variables or identification of classes
of data to be collected,
• In making research findings intelligible.
Theory also points outs gap in knowledge.
Contribution of Research to Theory
• Research initiates theory: i.e., the findings of
research may lead to the formulation of theories.
• Research tests an existing theory
• Reformulation of an existing theory
• Research refocuses theory.
• Research clarifies theory.
To sum up, a research should use theory to
plan and direct his lines of study, but use
empirical observations to test and refine his
theoretical propositions.
Conceptual and Theoretical Model
• Conceptual or theoretical model is a simplified systematic
conceptual structure of interrelated elements in some schematic
form, such as narrative statement or mathematical equation. It
describes relationships between and among concepts and variables.
• A model possess five different characteristics viz., level of analysis,
boundaries, specificity, construct relationship statement, and
assumptions.
Process of model building
1. Identify the phenomenon to be represented by a model;
2. Determine the nature & purpose of analysis for which the model is
constructed;
3. Gain a through understanding of the phenomenon through
observation or survey or available literature relating to it;
4. Conceptualise its meaning and nature;
5. Identify the important variables and attributes;
6. Examine the nature of inter-relationships among them;
7. Formulate the structure of the inter-relationships; &
8. Presents the structure in the form of a precise statement or
mathematical equation, defining the concepts, stating the assumptions
and using the rules of logic.
Advantages of Models for Research.
a) A model is a guiding tool for the entire process of research from the
conceptualization to analysis through the testing of hypotheses.
b) It enables the research to identify the concentrate on important &
relevant variable.
c) It helps considerably in ensuring that the reasoning is sound
d) A model represents pictures of theories as such, it enables to grasp
more quickly and comprehensively the sort of relation among
variables postulated by theories.
e) It enables us to comprehend precisely the direction of the relations
among variables
f) A model shows more Cleary the boundaries or conceptual limits of
theories.
g) It reminds us the need for abstraction in any systematic investigation.
h) In social sciences it is impossible to conduct strictly controlled
experiments. A series of models can serve as a reasonable substitute for
controlled experiments by acting as a mental laboratory for identifying
new relationships and clarifying thought.
i) A model suggests the techniques of analysis ways to interpretation of
data and ways to draw conclusions.
Drawbacks of Models
 A model building calls for high levels of logical skills and
mathematical competence.
 Those who have expertise in constructing models may go too far
and they may be tempted to create abstract models unrelated to
any real understanding of problem.
 Some time Abstract models have a tendency to pose themselves as
reality.
 Model does not represent scientific progress, it comes nearer to
being an intellectual fraud.
 Models may suffer from the problem of inadequacy or the
functional forms of mathematics.
 In social sciences, there a tendency to present extremes or polar
ends a dichotomies, for e.g., good/bad, formal/informal etc.,
 Models narrow the full implications of theories so much that
fruitful avenues of exploration not portrayed explicitly may be
ignored.
 Models tend to convey the impression that all the logically
consistent dimensions have been included. This, however, is not
always the case.
Social Science Research
• The Social Sciences are behavioural sciences. The behaviour of
human beings is influenced by biological, psychological,
socio–cultural, temporal and environmental factors. It is difficult to
see the underlying uniformities in the diversity of complex human
behaviour.
• The social science research is a systematic method of exploring,
analysing and conceptualising human life in order to extend, correct
or verify knowledge of human behaviour and social life. In other
words social science research “seeks to find explanations to
unexplained social phenomena, to clarify the doubtful, and correct
the misconceived facts of social life.”
Objectives of Social Science Research.
– To Discover new facts or verify and test old facts
– To understand the human behaviour & its interaction with the environment & the
social institutions.
– To find out the causal connection between human activities & natural laws governing
them.
– To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable
and valid study of human behaviour and social life.
Functions of Social Science Research
• Discovery of facts and their interpretation: Research provides
answer to questions of what, where, when, how and why man,
social life and institutions. There are half-truths, pseudo-truths,
and superstitions. Discovery of facts and their interpretation help
us to discard such distortions and thus enlighten us and
contribute to our understanding of social reality.
• Diagnosis of problems and their analysis; Problems like
poverty, unemployment, economic imbalance, economic
inequality, social tension, low productivity, technological
backwardness ete., the diagnosis and analysis of such problems
leads to an identification of appropriate remedial actions.
• Systematisation of knowledge: The facts discovered through
research are systematised and the body of knowledge is
developed.
• Control over Social Phenomena: Research in social areas equip
us with first-hand knowledge about the working of society and its
institutions in turn gives us a greater power of control over the
social phenomena.
• Prediction: Prediction in social science may not be perfect but
predictions will be fairly useful for better social planning and
control.
• Development of Planning: Systematic Research can give us the
required data base for planning designing developmental schemes
and programmes. Analytical studies can illuminate critical areas
of policy and testing the validity of planning assumptions.
Evaluation studies point out the impact of plan, policies and
programmes and throw out suggestions for their proper
reformulation.
• Social Welfare: Social research can unfold and identify the
causes of social evils and problems. It can thus help in taking
appropriate remedial actions. It can also give us sound guidelines
for appropriate positive measures of reform and social welfare.
Objectivity in Research
• Objectivity means the willingness and ability to examine evidence
dispassionately. It is the first condition of research.
• Objectivity means basing conclusion on facts without any bias and
value judgment or prejudices.
Factors affecting objectivity.
It is very difficult to achieve objectivity in social science
research. This difficulty arises out of the adverse influence of the
following factors.
Personal prejudice and biases
Value related problems
Personal Preconceptions
Ethical dilemmas
Social Phenomena
Achieving reasonable Objectivity in Social science Research
The following approaches and measures may contribute to
some degree of objectivity.
1. Researcher must have utmost patience and self-control.
2. Researcher must have an open mind to subject his research
process.
3. Research must use Standardized concepts.
4. Appropriate Quantitative i.e., Statistical and Mathematical
techniques of analysis may be used, as they are free from
subjective bias.
5. Group research will be more objective than an individual
research.
6. Random sampling may be used, as it is free from personal
prejudices.
Limitation of Social Science Research.
• Social researcher - a part of what is studied.
• Complexity of the Subject Matter
• Human Problems
• Personal Values
• Dangers of temptation
• Wrong decisions.
Types and Methods of Research
Classification of Research

According to the
According to the Intent Methods of Study

Pure Research Experimental Research

Applied Research Analytical Study

Exploratory Research Historical Research

Descriptive Study Survey.

Diagnostic Study Case Studies

Evaluation Studies Field Studies

Action Research
Pure Research. This type of research is undertaken for the sake of
knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice. Pure research is
also known as basic or fundamental research. it is not necessarily
problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge and leads to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It is the
foundation of applied research. The findings of pure research formed the
basis for innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam
engine, machines, automobiles, electronic gadgets, electronic data
processing , telecommunication etc., which have revolutionised and
enriched our human life.
Applied Research. Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real-
life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is thus problem-
oriented and action-directed.
There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology,
management, commerce, economics & other social science. They need
empirical study for finding solutions. It may also contribute to the
development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of
new facts or testing of a theory or to conceptual clarity.
Contribution of Pure Research.
• By developing principles, pure research offers solution to
many practical problems. For ex. Maslow’s theory of
motivation serves as a guideline for formulation incentive
schemes.
• Pure research helps to find the critical factors in a
practical problem
• Pure research develops many alternative solutions and
thus enables us to choose the best solution.
Contribution of Applied Research.
 Applied research can contribute new facts
 It puts theory to test.
 It may aid in conceptual clarification.
 It may integrate previously existing theories.
Exploratory or Formulative Research.
Exploratory researcher is preliminary study of an unfamiliar
problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It
is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a patient suffering
from an unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying
it “ it is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined
objectives” it usually takes the form of a pilot study.
Purposes of exploratory research.
 To generate new ideas or
 To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem or
 To make a precise formulation of the problem or
 To gather information for clarifying concepts or
 To determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.
Levels of exploratory studies.
Katz conceptualises two levels of exploratory studies.
 The Discovery of the significant variables in the
situation;
 The Discovery of relationships between variables.
it is necessary to delimit the area to be studied even at
th4e first level.
The Steps in Exploration
a) A Review of pertinent literature.
b) An Experience Survey.
c) An Analysis of ‘insight stimulating’ cases.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive study is a fact-finding investigation with adequate
interpretation. It is more specific than an exploratory study, as it has
focus on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It
is designed to gather descriptive information and provides
information for formulating more sophisticated studies. Data are
collected by using one or more appropriate methods: observation,
interviewing and mail questionnaire.
Criteria to be satisfied in the problem for conducting descriptive
research
 The problem must be describable & not arguable.
 The data should be amenable [agreeable] to an accurate, objective,
and if possible quantitative assemblage for reliability and
significance.
 It should be possible to develop valid standards of comparison.
 It should lend itself to verifiable procedure of collection and analysis
of data
Objective of Descriptive Research
1. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community
or institution or problem under study, but it does not deal with
the testing of propositions or hypotheses, However, it “ can
reveal potential relationships between variables, thus setting the
stage for more elaborate investigation later.”
2. A descriptive study also aims at a classification of the range of
elements comprising the subject matter of study. The
classification must satisfy two criteria, Viz., (1). Exhaustiveness
& (2). Mutual exclusiveness. Exhaustiveness is achieved when
all the important elements are identified. Mutual exclusiveness
occurs when each item can be unambiguously placed in only one
category in the system. Descriptive information should also be
useful for explanation, prediction and awareness.
Usefulness of descriptive studies.
 Contribute to the development of a young science as descriptive
information can focus directly on a theoretical point
 Descriptive information can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and interpretation.
 Descriptive information obtained in a research may be useful for
prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the
research.
 Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts needed for
planning social action programmes.
Limitations
• It is not applicable to problems which cannot satisfy the required criteria.
• The researcher may make description an end in itself.
• Although social science problems are continuous and have past and a future, the
researcher may lose himself in current conditions only.
• The researcher may tend to over-use statistics. In making statistical analysis.
Diagnostic Study
Diagnostic study is similar to Descriptive study but, with a different focus. It is
directed towards discovering what is happening, why is it happening, and what can
be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible
solutions for it.
Evaluation Studies.
It is a type of applied research made for assessing the effectiveness of social or
economic programmes implemented (for example: family planning scheme) or for
assessing the impact of developmental projects (for example: irrigation projects) on
the development of the project area. Such man defines evaluation as “ determination
of the results attained by some activity ( whether a programme, a drug or a therapy
or an approach) designed to accomplish some valued goal or objectives.
Types of Evaluations
Concurrent evaluation: it aims at the evaluation of the quality of
implementation & serves as a feed back for improving the performance.
Periodic evaluation: this is made after each distinct phase of project has been
completed.
Terminal evaluation: This is done after the completion of a
programme or project.
Action Research.
It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an
action programme launched for solving a problem or improving an
existing situation. In the quest for development, advancement, excellence
and promotion of welfare of people, government, institutions and
voluntary agencies undertake action programmes for achieving specific
goals or objectives. Examples: Land reform programmes, agricultural
extension programmes, social welfare programmes, HRD programmes,
social welfare programmes, rural development programmes etc.
Experimental Research.
Experimental research is designed to asses the effects of particular
variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or
controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what manner variables
are related to each other. The factor which is influenced by other factors
is called a dependent variable. And the other factors which influence it are
known as independent variables. The nature of relationship between
independent variables and dependent variables is perceived and stated in
the form of causal hypotheses. A closely controlled procedure is adopted
to test them.
Analytical study or Statistical Method.
Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of
analysis applied to quantitative data. It may consist of a system of
mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data. Hence it is also know as the Statistical Method.
• The study aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and
interpreting relationships. It concentrates on analysing data in
depth and examining relationships from various angles by brining
in as many relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.
• This method is extensively used in business and other fields in
which quantitative numerical data are generated
• Data may be collected from either primary sources or secondary
sources.
• There is vast scope for making analytical studies by using data
published by various Departments of Government and institutions
like RBI, Bureau of Public Enterprises, NABARD, Central
Statistical Organisation.
Historical Research.
Historical study is a study of past records & other information
sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of an
institution or a movement or a system and discovering the trends in the
past.
It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend
upon inference and logical analysis of recorded data and indirect
evidences rather than upon direct observation. Hence it is aptly described
as “the induction of principles through research into the past and social
forces which have shaped the present”.
Sources of Data for Historical Research.
• Eyewitness accounts narrated by an actual observer or participant in an
event,
• Oral testimony by elders,
• Records and other documentary materials : and
• Leftovers (Relics).
The data available from there sources may be scattered and
discontinuous and fragmented.
Steps in Historical Method.
1. The Feasibility of the study should be examined.
2. The selected problem should be formulated & plan of study
should be designed.
3. The sources of data should be located.
4. The genuineness of the sources and the validity of the facts
contained in them should be tested.
5. Relevant facts should be collected from the authentic sources and
they should be checked and crossed-checked.
6. The facts should be arranged into a logical sequence and this
synthesis of facts is the basis for rebuilding of the past situation.
7. By adopting induction process meaningful interpretations and
generalizations should be made.
The quality of a historical study depends on the relevance,
adequacy and completeness of facts collected, their reliability,
and the ingenuity of the researcher in classifying & integrating
them and in drawing inferences.
Limitations & Difficulties in Historical Research.
 Reliable and adequate data may not be available.
 It is also difficult to test the genuineness and authenticity of
sources and the data available from them. Personal biases and
private interpretations often enter unconsciously.
 It is difficult to establish the time order of events.
 Inferences may not be full or accurate.
 The dispersal of documents is another limitation.
 It is difficult to perceive the real significance of the data because
of their remote time period.
 Precise measurements, verifications and application are not
possible.
Surveys.
Survey is a “fact-finding” study. It is a method of research involving
collection of data directly from a population or a sample thereof at particular
time. It must not be confused with the mere clerical routine of gathering and
tabulating figures. It requires expert and imaginative planning, careful analysis
and rational interpretation of the findings. Data may be collected by
observation, or interviewing or mailing questionnaires. The analysis of data
may be made by using simple or complex statistical techniques depending
upon the objectives of the study.
The purpose of Surveys.
1. The purpose of many surveys such as population census, socio-economic
surveys, expenditure surveys etc., is simply to provide information to
government or planners or business enterprises.
2. Many enquires aim to explain phenomena. Their function is to test hypotheses
to explain the causal relationships between variables and to access the
influences of various factors on some phenomenon. like job-satisfaction,
labour productivity & consumer behaviour. Surveys aiming at explanation
involve in-depth analysis and complex interpretations.
3. Surveys may be designed to make comparisons of demographic
groups. Comparison of behavioural or attitudinal groups can also
be made.
4. Surveys concerned with cause and effect relationships can be
useful for making predictions
Steps involved in a Survey.
a. Selection of a problem & its formulation
b. Preparation of the research design,
c. Operationalisation of concepts & construction of measuring
indexes and scales.
d. Sampling
e. Construction of tools for collection of data and their pre-test.
f. Field work and collection of data
g. Processing of data and tabulation,
h. Analysis of data, and
i. Reporting.
Case Study
A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a
social group, an episode, a process, a situation, a programme, a
community, an institution or any other social unit.
Purpose of Case Study
• To understand the life cycle or the unit under study or
• Interaction between factors that explain the present status or
• The development over a period of time.
Some Example of Case studies are:
A social anthropological study of a rural or tribal community.
A causative study of a successful cooperative society.
A study of the financial health of a business undertaking
A study of labour participation in management in a particular enterprise., ete.,
A study of life in slums
A study of urban poor., etc.,
Field Studies.
Field studies are scientific enquires aimed at discovering the
relations and interactions among sociological, psychological and
educational variables in real social structures and life situations like
communities, schools, factories, organisations and institutions. A
social or institutional situation is selected and the relations among
the attitudes, values, perceptions and behaviours of individuals and
groups in the selected situation are studied.
Examples of field studies are:
Dollard’s study of cast and class in a southern towns

Jone’s study of land and labour in a Deccan village

Aiyayappan’s study of social revolution in a Kerala village.

Steps in Research.
In General the Research Process consists of the following steps:
1. Identification and selection of a research problem/topic.
2. Review of literature; includes preliminary, systematic review &
notes taking.
3. Formulation of selected problem/topic ie., definition or the
problem, conceptual mode, delimitation of the study,
formulation of objectives of the study, and the
hypotheses/investigating questions
4. Operationalisation of concepts; definition of concepts,
construction of indexes/scales for measuring variables
5. Preparation of research plan: statement of the problem,
objectives of the study, hypotheses, operational definition of
concepts geographical area of the study, methodology ( type of
research and methods of collection of data), sampling design,
tools for collection of data, plan of analysis, over-view of the
research report, time-schedule.
6. Construction of tools of data-collection: identification of data
needs, description of data sources, drafting observation schedule,
interview schedule/guide, mailed questionnaire and /or check lists
or experimental design, pre-testing and possible revision.
7. Collection of data: Experimental/field work, preparing sample
frame, drawing sample of respondents, interviewing
them/mailings questionnaires to them and follow-up.
8. Process of data: editing, coding, transcription, tabulation,
construction of tables and charts.
9. Analysis of data; Statistical treatment, testing hypotheses,
interpretation of findings.
10. Report-writing: Planning report writing work, drafting the report
and its finalisation.
In simple the steps in research are grouped as follows:
1. Planning.
 Selection of the problem/topic
 Formulation of the selected problem/topic
 Operationalisation of concepts
 Preparation of the research design
 Planning report-writing work.
2. Operation.
 Construction of tools of data collection
 Pre-testing tools and their revision
 Collection of data
 Processing of data
 Analysis of data & interpretation of results.
3. Reporting.
 Drafting the Report
 Finalisation of the Report
 Forwarding the Report copies to the target audience/ clients/users