ULTRASONICS

Prof. J.K. Goswamy

U.I.E.T, Panjab University
Chandigarh
 Introduction
 Acoustic waves owe their origin to mechanical disturbance.

 These waves can be classified as:

o Audible Range 20Hz to 20kHz

o Infrasonic Waves <20Hz
o Ultrasonic Waves >20kHz

 Human ears not responsive to infrasonic and ultrasonic waves.

 Ultrasonic waves have frequencies up to 500MHz and is decided

by generator.

 Owing to small wavelength, noiseless performance and directional

property, these waves are preferred over audible frequencies.

 Production of Ultrasonic Waves
 Different methods to generate ultrasonic waves are:
 Whistles

 Sirens

 Mechanical vibrators

 Electromagnetic transducers.

 Most commonly used laboratory methods are:

 Piezoelectric oscillator.

 Magnetostriction oscillator.
 Piezoelectric Oscillator Method
 Piezoelectric Effect: Certain crystals when subjected to stress,
develop potential difference across a pair of opposite faces.

 Piezoelectric Crystals: Quartz, Rochelle salt, Barium titanate.

 The polarity of potential difference developed for compressive

stress is opposite to that of tension.

 Converse Phenomenon: Crystal expands or contracts along

one axis when an appropriate electric field is applied along an
axis perpendicular to it.
 Piezoelectric crystals have three specific axes :

Electric, Mechanical and Optic which are

Optic Axis
perpendicular to each other. The piezoelectric

effect (or its converse) is observed to be

maximum when electric (or mechanical) stress

is applied along its designated axis.

 The crystal is cut with major surface along the

electric axis and is mounted between plates.

 The alternating electric field is generated by

electronic oscillator. The frequency of the
oscillator is controlled by LC combination. The
electric field of definite frequency is applied
along proper axis of quartz crystal.
 This results in alternate expansion
and contraction of quartz crystal
thereby generating ultrasonic waves.
The frequency of ultrasonic waves is
controlled by frequency of the
applied electric field.
 The stationary wave are excited in the
quartz crystal plate because of its natural
resonance and the thickness of the plate
(t) is given to be t=/2.
 The frequency of waves is f=v/2t.
 The experimental value of frequency is slightly different

from theoretical value as vibrations other than in

mechanical axis direction are not considered.

 The piezoelectric oscillator method offers advantages

due to its:
 Small size.

 Low cost.

 Versatility in production of high frequency ultrasonic waves.

 Faithful wave form of output.

 Magnetostriction Oscillator Method
 Magnetostriction Effect: When a ferromagnetic rod is subjected to an axial

magnetic field, its length increases (or decreases). This phenomenon was

discovered by Joule and is referred to as Magnetostriction effect.

 Materials: It is strongly observed in ferromagnetic materials like iron,

cobalt, nickel and their alloys.

 Vibrational Frequency: Generally the rod is designed to oscillate in the

fundamental mode. Metal rod vibrates along its length when subjected to

alternating magnetic field. If the rod is previously unmagnetized, then it

vibrates with a frequency double that of magnetic field. However if it is

previously magnetized then it vibrates with frequency of alternating field.

 The alternating magnetic field, generated by the

magnetostriction oscillator, is applied on the

magnetized nickel rod which expands and contracts
alternatively along its length. The frequency of
vibration of rod is controlled by the variable capacitor.

 Nickel rod is clamped at the centre. There are two coils

L2
L1 and L2 are connected to emitter-base and base-
collector circuits respectively.

 When current through L2 is changed, magnetization of

rod suffers variation causing alteration in its length. L1

 This leads to variation in magnetic flux linked with coil

L1 and inducing emf which alters emitter base voltage

and hence emitter current. This again alters the length
of rod and hence oscillations of rod are maintained.
 Ultrasonic Generation: The frequency of vibrations can be adjusted

and ultrasonic waves of desired frequency can be generated.

Ordinarily, the amplitude of vibrations is small but at resonance,
where frequency of applied alternating magnetic field matches with
natural frequency of oscillations of rod, the amplitude increases
considerably.

 Advantages: The magnetostriction oscillators have:

 Simplicity

 Low cost

 Large power handling at low frequencies.

 They are not suitable for generating high frequency ultrasonic waves.
 Detection of Ultrasonic Waves
 Piezo-Electric Detector

 One pair of faces of a quartz crystal is subjected to ultrasonic waves.

 The varying electric charges are produced on the other pair of
perpendicular faces. These charges are small but can be amplified and
detected.

 Kundt's Tube

 Ultrasonic waves of relatively large wavelength are passed through

the Kundt’s tube.
 Lycopodium powder sprinkled in the tube, collects in the form of
heaps at nodal points and is blown off from anti-nodal points. This
helps in detection of ultrasonic waves and also measuring its
wavelength.
 Acoustic Diffraction Method

 When the ultrasonic waves are propagated in a

liquid, the density varies from layer to layer due to
periodic variation of pressure. It results in formation
of diffraction grating within the liquid volume.

 If monochromatic light is passed through the liquid

at right angles to the wave propagation, then it
suffers diffraction.

 The diffraction pattern of light, so obtained, can be

used to determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves.
 Applications of Ultrasonic Waves
Ultrasonic waves are used in different applications using two
techniques.
 Low Intensity Techniques: Non-destructive testing (NDT) of a
material is done without causing any change in the properties
of the material. Ultrasonic waves of very low acoustic power
(10mW, 0.5-10 MHz) are used for such applications.
 High Intensity Techniques: When acoustic stress is large then
Hooke’s law no longer remains applicable, which results in
high intensity ultrasound. The acoustic power ranges from few
watts to kilowatts and is capable of producing irreversible
changes in the material through which it propagates.
 Low Intensity Techniques
• Pulse Echo Method
 A short pulse of ultrasonic wave is sent

into the sample. This pulse travels

through thickness of sample and gets

reflected from opposite boundary.

 It is received by its emitter which now

acts as receiver. The time required by

pulse to traverse the thickness of

sample and return back is noted

electronically.
 Progressive Continuous wave Method

 The transmitting transducer is excited to generate

continuous waves in the sample.

 The waves are detected by a receiver placed at a

measured distance from the transmitter.

 This method is used when the attenuation in the

sample is high or damping mechanism is used to

avoid reflections and formation of stationary waves.
 Resonance Method
 Stationary waves are set in the sample and either
acoustic path length or frequency is varied till the
resonance takes place.

 At this position the thickness is either integral

number of half wavelengths or odd number of
quarter wavelengths.

 A single reversible transducer and a parallel solid

reflecting surface are immersed in the medium. The
reflector is attached to a micrometer so that the
motion can be controlled to obtain the position of
resonance.

 For different positions of the reflector, the peaks

observed indicate the resonance. The peaks
decrease in amplitude for increase in distance from
the source. They are separated by a distance of half-
wavelength.

 For measurements in solids, it is not possible to vary

acoustic path length and hence frequency is varied.
 Low Intensity Applications
 Flaw Detection
 The pulse echo method is used for flaw detection. In the absence

of any flaw (crack, cavity, bubble etc), two peaks P and Q are
observed on the screen. The peak P is the original transmission
peak while Q is the reflected signal.

 If there is any flaw, the reflection of part or whole of the incident

wave takes place, which results in another peak R on the screen.

The distance between P and R indicates position of flaw and
height of the peak indicates the size of flaw.

 When the flaw is present, the height of peak Q diminishes. It gives

better idea about the flaw, than the height of peak R.

 Thickness Gauging
 For ultrasonic thickness measurements either pulse echo or
resonance technique is used which is similar to flaw detection.
 The time taken for traveling the distance is measured by the
electronic circuit and after conversion, the distance is shown on
the digital display. In the beginning, the gauge is calibrated with
standard sample.
 It has the advantage that access to only one surface is sufficient
for the thickness measurement.
 The method is used for assessment of
 Internal corrosion of pipes.

 External corrosion of ship.

 Measurement of depth of fat on the bodies of live animals.

 Depth Sounding Or Sonar

 The depth of sea can be measured from the ship, using

ultrasonic waves.

 The reflected waves are collected by the receiver and the

time interval between transmission and corresponding

echo is measured.

 The profile of the ocean bed can also be mapped by this

method.

 Ultrasonic range finder also works on the same principle

but uses either pulses or continuous waves.

 Medical Diagnosis

 The technique used for flaw detection is also applied for

medical diagnosis.

 The characteristic impedance and absorption coefficients

of different parts of the body are different.

 The difference in healthy and malignant tissue can be

detected for early warning of cancer.

 Frequency range used in medical diagnosis is 1–10MHz.

 The scanning technique, known as sonography, is used to

obtain clear pictures of various body organs.
 High Intensity Applications

 Cavitation

 When sound wave travels through a liquid, it leads to alternate compression

and expansion of liquid during respective positive and negative half cycles.

 As acoustic pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure, voids are created, which

expand during negative half cycle and collapse abruptly.

 This releases energy giving rise to shock waves which may cause fluctuation of

local temperature from room temperature to 104 -105 oC at very high

frequency (as of wave propagation). This is called cavitation.

 It helps in emulsification of two immiscible liquids, in preparation of dairy

products, sauces and gravies, salad creams, sterilization of milk, tendering of

meat by breaking down its fibers.
 Ultrasonic Cleaning
 In ultrasonic cleaning both agitation and cavitation are involved.

 The cleaning of large components is carried out at low frequency

range 18-40kHz, where cavitation is most active.

 For delicate articles, higher frequency range 0.1-1MHz is used,

where cavitation is almost absent.

 The process is used for removal of grease from engine

components, oil, dust, buffering compounds etc. from printed

circuit boards, jewelry and various instruments and devices.
 Fatigue Testing

 When high intensity ultrasonic waves are passed through a solid, the

strain developed finally results in fracture. This phenomenon is used in

fatigue testing.

 The high intensity ultrasonic waves are also used for drilling, soldering,

treatment of melts and welding.

 Effects on Suspension
 When ultrasonic waves pass through a fluid in which particles are suspended, due

to radiation pressure, particles are pushed along the direction of propagation.

 In the stationary wave system particles coagulate and fall when they become

heavy enough.

 When the particles are in the form of gas, the bubbles coalesce and then rise to

the surface.

 The technique is used for dispersion of fog and smoke, degassing of molten glass,

molten metal, liquid foods etc. These effects are caused by agitation.
 Chemical Applications

 Cavitation in liquids promotes chemical reactions. In certain

reactions, where agitation is needed, focused ultrasonic is used.

 In electroplating, bubbles appearing at electrodes are dispersed

by ultrasound, which increases the speed of the process.

 Medical Applications

 Cavitation breaks down the cells or even destroys them. The high

intensity ultrasonic waves are dangerous for human beings. There

may occur cellular damage or disruptive effect on chromosomes.

 The ultrasonic waves are used to kill certain tissues.

 The ultrasonic surgery is an emerging field.