ULTRASONIC

TESTING(UT)
Basic Principles of
Ultrasonic Testing

Theory and Practice

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

What are sound waves?
Sound waves are simply vibrations of the particles making up a solid, liquid, or gas.
Medium is mandatory, don’t exist in vacuum
A vibration is an example of periodic motion,
the body or particle concerned is undergoing some repetitive
change of position with time.

T
f 
1
Spectrum of sound
Frequency range Hz Description Example

0 - 20 Infrasound Earth quake

20 - 20.000 Audible sound Speech, music

> 20.000 Ultrasound Bat, Quartz crystal

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Atomic structures
gas liquid solid

• low density • medium density • high density

• weak bonding • medium bonding • strong bonding
forces forces forces
• crystallographic
structure

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 During one oscillation T the wave
T front propagates by the distance
:

Distance travelled

From this we derive:

c  f
T
c 
 or Wave equation

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Modes of Propagation
1. Compression waves are sometimes
called longitudinal waves
2. Shear waves are sometimes called
transverse waves
3. Surface waves are sometimes called
Rayleigh waves
4. Lamb waves are sometimes called plate
waves
Sound propagation

Longitudinal wave
Direction of propagation
Direction of
oscillation

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Sound propagation

Transverse wave
Direction of propagation
Direction of oscillation

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Surface waves (Rayleigh waves)
Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel the surface of a
Rayleigh waves are
relatively thick solid material penetrating to a depth of
useful because they
one wavelength. Surface waves combine both a
are very sensitive
longitudinal and transverse motion to create an elliptic
to surface defects
orbit motion as shown in the image and animation
(and other surface
below. The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to
features)
the surface of the solid.
http://www.ndt-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Physics/modepropagati
on.htm

Lamb waves (plate waves)

Plate waves are similar to surface waves except they can
only be generated in materials a few wavelengths thick.
they can exist best in plate, tube, and wire.
Properties of Sound Waves
Velocity

Ball = atom Spring = elastic bonding force

Factors Affecting Velocity
Density
In which materiasl the Sound waves travel faster, STEEL or LEAD?
Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Moudulus) or Modulus of Rigidity
In which materiasl the Sound waves travel faster, STEEL or LEAD?

Which modulus has higher value, G or E?

As a rule of thumb, the shear wave velocity is roughly half the compression wave velocity.
Properties of Sound Waves
Velocity
Wave propagation
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.
Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse waves
travel at lower speeds.
Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and E-
modulus of the material.

Air 330 m/s

Water 1480 m/s
Steel, long 5920 m/s
Steel, trans 3250 m/s

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Properties of Sound Waves
Wavelength

The smallest reflector that can be detected must have a major

dimension of at least half a wavelength at the test frequency.

What should be the frequency of sound waves to detect small

reflectors?
Properties of Sound Waves
Reflection and Transmission

As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material characteristics

,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal inclusion, wave
propagation will change too:

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Properties of Sound Waves
Reflection and Transmission
Behaviour at an interface

Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Interface
The boundary between one medium and another—for instance, steel
to air at the far side of a steel plate—is called an “interface.”
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Properties of Sound Waves
Reflection and Transmission
Behaviour at an interface
Acoustic impedance is the product of density and velocity for that material
Properties of Sound Waves
Reflection and Transmission
Couplant

Why do we need Couplant?

Hint: % of Reflected energy for air-steel interface is 100% and for water-steel is 88.09 %

the sound goes straight back into the transducer without transmitting into the metal! To
overcome this problem there has to be some way to exclude the air using a
medium that will match the acoustic impedance of the transducer to the metal.
Most couplants permit between 10% and 15% sound transmission

Commonly used couplants are:

Water (allows about 12% of the energy into the steel)
Kerosene
Oil
Grease Wallpaper paste
Glycerin (allows about 15% of the energy into the steel, so best option to use)
Special gels designed for the purpose
Properties of Sound Waves
Refraction
Snell’s law
V1

V2

V1< V2
Properties of Sound Waves
Refraction
Snell’s law

V of compression wave in
steel is Four times the V in
water
Similarly
R0 is four times the i0
Properties of Sound Waves
Refraction and Mode Conversion
Incident beam at angles>>>mode conversion i.e. along with the
refracted compression wave, a refracted shear wave is produced
Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument

amplifier

screen
IP horizontal
BE sweep

clock

pulser
probe

work piece

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Ultrasonic Probes

socket Delay / protecting face

crystal Electrical matching
Damping Cable

Straight beam probe TR-probe Angle beam probe

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Piezoelectric Effect

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)

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Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal

lattice

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Piezoelectric Effect

The effect inverses with polarity change

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Piezoelectric Effect

Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

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Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse
( < 1 µs )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystal‘s resonant

frequency f0

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Reception of ultrasonic waves
A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal
vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal
surfaces.

Electrical Piezoelectrical
crystal Ultrasonic wave
energy

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 Test Techniques
 Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method, and
inspections can be accomplished in a number of different
ways.
 Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided into
three primary classifications.
◦ Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)
◦ Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)
◦ Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the test article)

Each of these techniques will be discussed briefly in the following

slides.
Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of
energy and the same or a second transducer listens for
reflected energy (an echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and
the surfaces of the test article.
f
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus
time, which provides the inspector information about the size
and the location of features that reflect the sound.

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
UT Instrument Screen
Test Techniques – Pulse-Echo (cont.)
Digital display showing
signal generated from
sound reflecting off back
surface.

Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector
midway through material, with
lower amplitude back surface
reflector.

The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one

side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.
 Test Techniques – Through-Transmission
• Two transducers located on opposing sides
of the test specimen are used. One 11

transducer acts as a transmitter, the other as

a receiver. T R

• Discontinuities in the sound path will result

in a partial or total loss of sound being
transmitted and be indicated by a decrease
in the received signal amplitude. T R

• Through transmission is useful in detecting

2
discontinuities that are not good reflectors,
and when signal strength is weak. It does
not provide depth information.

11

0 2 4 6 8 10
Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material
thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal
due to presence
of a discontinuity
in the sound field.
Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam
• In normal beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at 90 degree to
the surface.
• In angle beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at some angle
other than 90.
• The choice between normal and angle beam
inspection usually depends on two
considerations:
- The orientation of the feature of
interest – the sound should be
directed to produce the largest
reflection from the feature..
Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam
Example:
In fig. b if sample thickness is 20
mm and beam angle is 45 degr.
then what would be the total
Distance travelled by the ultrasonic
waves?
Also what would be the location of signal on
UT equipment?

Ans. 56 mm approx. and crack appear at 28

This is called half skip technique.
Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam
Example:
In fig. b if sample thickness is 20
mm and beam angle is 45 degr.
then what would be the total
Distance travelled by the ultrasonic
waves?
Also what would be the location of signal on UT
equipment?

Ans. 112 mm approx. and crack will

appear at 56 mm.
This is called full skip technique.
Test Techniques – Contact Vs Immersion
• To get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the air
between the transducer and the test article must be
removed. This is referred to as coupling.
• In contact testing (shown on the previous slides) a couplant
such as water, oil or a gel is applied between the transducer
and the part.
• In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in
a water bath. This arrangement allows better movement of
the transducer while maintaining consistent coupling.
• With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of the
part is seen in the signal but otherwise signal interpretation
is the same for the two techniques.
1 2
IP 1 IP 2 IP = Initial Pulse
FWE FWE FWE = Front Wall
Echo
BWE BWE DE = Defect Echo
DE BWE = Back Wall
Echo

Defect 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Displays
Orientation of Reflector
 Advantages of Ultrasonic
Examination
 Inspection can be accomplished from one surface
 Small discontinuities can be detected
 Considerable control over test variables
 Varieties of techniques are available using diverse wave modes
 High-temperature examination is possible with the correct equipment
 Examination of thick or long parts
 Inspection of buried parts, e.g., shafts in captivated bearing houses
 Accurate sizing techniques for surface-breaking and internal discontinuities is possible
 Discontinuity depth information
 Surface and subsurface discontinuities can be detected
 High speed scanning is possible with electronic signal gating and alarm system
 “Go/No-Go” testing of production components
 Test repeatability
 Equipment is light and portable
 Area evacuation of personnel is not necessary
 Special licenses are not required as with radiation sources
 Minimum number of consumables
Limitations of Ultrasonic
Examination
 Discontinuities that are oriented parallel with the
beam energy will usually not be detected.
Orientation of the discontinuity (reflector) is the
most important factor in detecting discontinuities.
 Thin sections may present resolution problems or
require the implementation of special techniques.
 Uneven scanning surfaces can reduce the
effectiveness of the test.
 Signals can be misinterpreted. This includes
spurious signals from mode conversion or beam
redirection, etc.
 In general, this method requires a high level of skill
and training.
 Permanent record of the examination results is not
typical.