Control Systems I

By G.michael Teame (M.
Sc)
Mekelle University
2005
Eeng 402 Linear Control Systems

1.Introduction
G(s)
+
_
Course Objectives
• To provide a general understanding of the
characteristics of dynamic systems and feedback
control.
• To teach classical methods for analysing control

system accuracy, stability and dynamic performance.
• To teach classical control system analysis and design

methods.
2
Control System Concepts
• A system is a collection of components which are co-
ordinated together to perform a function.
• Systems interact with their environment across a

separating boundary.
• The interaction is defined in terms of variables.

– system inputs
– system outputs
– environmental disturbances
3
Systems
Disturbance Inputs
System Outputs
Subsystem
Engineering systems
Biological systems
Information systems
Control Inputs
4
System Variables
• The system’s boundary depends upon the defined
objective function of the system.
• The system’s function is expressed in terms of measured

output variables.
• The system’s operation is manipulated through the control

input variables.
• The system’s operation is also affected in an uncontrolled

manner through the disturbance input variables. 5
Basic components of control system
• Control system is interconnection of components forming
a system configuration that will provide a desired response
• The input and output relationship represents the cause and

effect relationship of the process.
• All control systems have similar structure and consist of

the same basic components.
• Process:
– (plant) is the main physical component of a control system
– Dynamic system whose output is to be controlled
6
Car and Driver Example
• Objective function: to control the direction and
speed of the car.
• Outputs: actual direction and speed of the car
• Control inputs: road markings and speed signs
• Disturbances: road surface and grade, wind,
obstacles.
• Possible subsystems: the car alone, power steering
system, braking system, . . .
7
Antenna Positioning Control System
• Original system: the antenna with
electric motor drive systems.
• Control objective: to point the
antenna in a desired reference direction.
• Control inputs: drive motor voltages.
• Outputs: the elevation and azimuth of the
antenna.
• Disturbances: wind, rain, snow.
8
Antenna Control System
Functional Block Diagram
Wind force
Antenna System
volts torque Angular
Ref. + volts power position
input _ Diff. Power
amp amp Motor Antenna
Error
volts
Angle
Feedback Path sensor
Information Variables Physical Variables
9
Control System Components
• Control system is interconnection of components that provide a desired
response
• The input and output relationship represents the cause and effect of the process.
• Control systems have similar structure & consists of same basic components.
System or process
– The main physical component of a control system
– Dynamic system whose output is to be controlled
Actuators
– Used to physically influence the process
– Converts the control signal to a power signal
Sensors
– Device provides measurement of the actual system output
– Not perfect and affected by errors
10
…cont’d
Reference input
– represents the desired value of the output
– Which is the objective of the control system
Comparator
 Forms the control error signal
Controller (algorithm or mechanism) compensators

– Operates on the control error to form the control signal It is
the brain of the control system
Disturbance signal or noise

– Signals external to the control system but affect the process
– Include, radiation, vibration, heat loses 11
Feedback System Characteristics
Consider the following speed control system
Disturbance
torque
Open loop system Td
+
wr + u
Amp Motor Tm + Load wo
Reference Ka Km Kl
_
speed
Speed sensor
Ks
Feedback Path
12
Open Loop System Characteristics
Assume that each component may be represented by a simple
gain, then
w o  Kl (Tm  Td )
 K a K m Kl u  KlTd
The accuracy of the open loop system depends upon the
calibration of the gains and prior knowledge of the
disturbance (choose the control u to give the desired wo ).
Problems:
– nonlinear or time varying gains
– unknown and varying disturbances
13
Closed Loop Characteristics
Now consider the case with feedback.
w o  K l (Tm  Td )
 K a K m K l (w r  K sw o )  K lTd
or
Ka Km Kl Kl
w o wr  Td
1  Ka Km Kl K s 1  Ka K m Kl K s
14
If Ka is very large such that,

1  K a K m Kl K s  K a K m Kl K s
then, 1 1
w o w r  Td
Ks Ka Km K s
rad/s volts 0
Ks is the sensor gain in units of volts per rad/s.
The input/output relationship is not very
sensitive to disturbances or changes in the
system gains 15
System Error
The control error is
e  (w r  K sw o )
 Ka Km Kl K s  Kl K s
 1  w r  Td
 1  Ka Km Kl K s  1  Ka Km Kl K s
1 Kl K s
 wr  Td
1  Ka Km Kl K s 1  Ka Km Kl K s
Again, if the loop gain, Ka Km Kl Ks is large,

then the error is small.
16
Note: Gain Definitions
forward gain: Ka Km Kl
feedback gain: Ks
loop gain: Ka Km Kl Ks
closed loop gain: forward gain
1 + loop gain
17
Advantages of closed loop system
• Closed loop system has the following advantages
– Faster response to an input signal
– Effective disturbance rejection
– Low sensitivity to system parameter errors
– Low sensitivity to change in calibration errors
– More accurate control of plant under disturbance and
internal variations
– Used to stabilize systems that are inherently unstable
in the open loop control
18
Disadvantage of closed loop systems
• The following are some of the disadvantages of
closed loop system
– Require the use of sensors which increase the system
costs, volume and weight
– Involve more components which leads to more costs
and complexity
– The power costs due to high gains are high
– More complex to design and harder to build
– Unnecessary when system inputs and the plant model
are known 19
System Dynamics
• Consider a sudden change in the speed reference, wr .
• The output speed, wo will not respond instantaneously
due to the inertial characteristics of the motor and
load, i.e. their dynamic characteristics.
• The motor and load need to be represented by
dynamic equations rather than simple gains.
• The output response will generally lag the input and
may be oscillatory.
20
System Dynamics
Step Responses
Ka = 2 Ka = 20
Step Response, Ka=2 Step Response, Ka=20
1 2
wo
0.9
wr
wo
0.8 1.5
0.7
0.6 1
wr
0.5
0.4 0.5
0.3
Tm
0.2
Tm 0
0.1
0 -0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Assume Ks = 1.0
21
Control System Design
Objectives
• Primary Objectives:
1. Dynamic stability
2. Accuracy
3. Speed of response
• Addition Considerations:
4. Robustness (insensitivity to parameter variation)
5. Cost of control
6. System reliability
22
Control System Design Steps
• Define the control system objectives.
• Identify the system boundaries.
– define the input, output and disturbance variables
• Determine a mathematical model for the
components and subsystems.
• Combine the subsystems to form a model for
the whole system.
23
• Apply analysis and design techniques to determine
the control system structure and parameter values of
the control components, to meet the design
objectives.
• Test the control design on a computer simulation of

the system.
• Implement and test the design on the actual process

or plant. 24
Eceg 402 Control Systems I
By G.michael Te-ame (M.Sc
Section 2.
System Modeling
Tw(s)
+ p(s)
Sa(s) 1 + 1 1
Gc(s) Kh G (s)
Bm p s J m
Ra  s La s
+
-
Ks
X2W Helicopter Pitch Control Model
System Modeling
• Purpose of models in control systems:
1. The mathematical model of a system is the
basis for all control system analysis and
design methods.
2. A detailed model allows some verification of

the performance of the control system through
simulation, before it is implemented on the
actual system.
26
Types of Models
• Physical Models
A model for a given system
– scale models depends upon:
– analogue models • defined system boundaries
• objective of the study
• Mathematical Models • level of approximation
– analytically based required
– experimentally based
27
Types of Models
• A design model will often have many
assumptions and simplifications made to allow
the use of analytical methods (we will normally
require linear, time-invariant models).
• For verification studies, all model details are

included and the model equations are then
solved numerically, i.e. computer simulation.
28
The Modeling Process
1. Define the purpose or objective of the model.
Identify system boundaries, functional blocks,
interconnecting variables, inputs and outputs.
Construct a functional block diagram.
2. Determine the model for each component or

subsystem.
Apply known physical laws when possible,
otherwise use experimental data to identify input-
output relationships.
29
3. Integrate the subsystem models into an
overall system model.
Combine equations, eliminate variables, check for
sufficient equations to solve the system.
4. Verify the model validity and accuracy.

Implement a simulation of the model equations
and compare with experimental data for the
same conditions.
30
5. Make simplifications to create an
approximate model suitable for control design.
– Linearization of model equations
– Reduce the order of the model by eliminating
unimportant dynamics
– Use lumped parameter approximations for distributed
parameter system.
trade-off
Model Complexity Model Accuracy
31
Electrical Component Models
i
+ voltage/current voltage/charge
v
_
i Inductance v = L di/dt v = L dq2/dt2

+
v
_ Resistance v=Ri v = R dq/dt
i + Capacitance v = 1/C  i dt v = 1/C q

v
_
32
Mechanical Translation Models
x
force/velocity force/position
f
M
Mass f = M dv/dt f = M dx2/dt2
x
f
Viscous f=Bv f = B dx/dt
B friction
Spring f = k  v dt f=kx
f x
33
Mechanical Rotational Models
J torque/velocity torque/position
T, 
Inertia T = J dw/dt T = J d2/dt2
T, 
Viscous T=Bw T = B d/dt
B friction
s
Stiffness T = s  w dt T=s 
T, 
34
Transformation Models
i1 i2
v1 v2 v1 N1 i1 N2
Transformer = =
N1 N2 v2 N2 i2 N1
f2 , x2
f1 , x1 f1 L2 x1 L1
L2 Lever = =
L1
f2 L1 x2 L2
T2 , 2
N1 T1 N1 1 N2
Gears = =
T2 N2 2 N1
N2
T1 , 1
35
A Simple Example: R
An RC Circuit vi i vo
Find the transfer function Vo(s) / Vi(s) .
1 1
vi  R i   i dt , vo   i dt
C C
Taking the Laplace
 1  1
Vi ( s )   R   I ( s ) , Vo ( s )  I (s)
 sC  sC
then, eliminating I(s)
1 Vo ( s ) 1
Vo ( s )  Vi ( s) or 
1  RCs Vi ( s ) 1   s
where,  = RC
36
Bandwidth Calculation for the Lab:
Frequency Response:
If, vi (t )  A sin(w t ) , then Vo ( jw )  1

Vi ( jw ) 1   ( jw )
Vo
For very low frequencies, w  << 1 , the TF gain,  1.
Vi
1
For very high frequencies, w  >> 1 , the TF gain  .
w
1 1
For w  w  
 , 1 , the TF gain
2
.
The frequency response is obtained by plotting
1
20 log 10 vs. log 10 w
1  jw
37
Rf C
Ri
_
Op Amp Example vi i + vo
1
vi  Ri i , vo   R f i   i dt Assumptions: Op Amp
C input  zero current
Take the Laplace and solve and voltage.
1
Vi ( s )  Ri I ( s ) , Vo ( s )  ( R f  ) I ( s )
sC
1
(R f  ) X f (s)
Vo ( s )   sC Vi ( s )   Vi ( s )  G ( s ) Vi ( s )
Ri X i ( s)
Transfer Function , G(s)

38
x(t)
Mechanical Example k
M
u(t)
B
spring force f s  k x
dx
sliding force f b  B v  B
dt
net force on mass  u  f s  f b , then
d 2x dx
M 2  u  f s  f b  u  k x  B , or
dt dt
d 2x dx
M 2 B k x u
dt dt
39
Mechanical Example x(t)
Continued k
M
u(t)
Taking the Laplace B
Ms 2 X ( s)  Bs X ( s)  k X ( s)  U ( s)
and solving
1
X ( s)  U ( s)
Ms  Bs  k
2
40
R L
Electrical Example vi i C vo
vi   voltages accross components

di 1
 R i  L   i dt
dt C Note the relationship
Taking the Laplace between the
1 components in the
Vi ( s )  R I ( s )  Ls I ( s )  I (s)
Cs mechanical and
and solving electrical examples.
I (s) 
s
Vi ( s )  G ( s )Vi ( s ) • L <=> M
1
Ls  Rs 
2
• R <=> B
C
• 1/C <=> k
41
Classes of Model Equations
• Continuous differential equations.
• Discrete difference equations.
• Algebraic equations
Within each class there are subclasses of

equations. The following shows the
subclasses for differential equations.
42
Differential Equations
Partial Ordinary
Linear Nonlinear
Time invariant Time varying

LTI - Linear, time invariant, ordinary
differential equations are required for
control analysis and design.
43
Approximations
partial diff. eqs. ordinary diff. eqs.
lumped parameter
nonlinear eqs. linear eqs.

linearization
time varying time invariant

sequence of models
44
Linearization of Equations
g
slope 
x x  xo
yo y=g(x)
Consider the function
y  g ( x)
Expand this function about x = xo ,
using a Taylor series expansion. xo
g 1 2g
y  g ( xo )  ( x  xo )  ( x  xo ) 2  H .O.T
x x  xo 2! x 2
x  xo
To linearize, discard the 2nd and higher order terms.

g
y  x , where y  ( y  yo ) , yo  g ( xo ) , x  ( x  xo )
x x  xo
constant slope 45
Linearization of
a function of many variables
If y = g(x1,x2, … xn ), expand about the operating point defined by
yo = g(x1o,x2o, … xno ).
g g
y  g ( x1o , x2 o ,  xno )  ( x1  x1o )  ( x2  x2 o )
x1 x xo
x2 x xo
g
  ( xn  xno )  H .O.T .
xn x xo
g g g This defines a
y  x1  x2   xn
x1 x xo
x2 x xo
xn x xo
hyperplane in
n-dimensional
space.
where, x  x1 , x2 ,  xn 
T constant slopes
46
Linearization of
differential equations
1. Determine the operating point through a steady-
state solution of the differential equation.
2. Linearize each term of the differential equation as

a separate function.
3. In this process, treat the dependent variable and

each of its derivatives, as separate variables.
47
Linearization of
differential equations: Example
Linearize the following differential equation about an operating
point defined by uo = 2.0

x  5 x x  2 sin( x)  u x
3
The operating point is defined by uo = 2.0 with the derivatives = 0.

2 sin( xo )  uo xo  2.0 xo  xo  0.5
3
Now linearize about the operating point, xo  0.5, xo  0, xo  0
2 
x  5 xo x  5 xo x  cos( xo )x  uo x  xo u , or
3 3
x  2.5x  1.86x  0.5u Note: this equation is in terms of
perturbation variables.
48
Modeling Example:
The DC Servomotor
The DC Servomotor: Jm
• The armature current
R L Tm, m
+ + Bm
depends upon the ea ia eb
applied voltage and -- if
--
the back emf.
ef
• The electromagnetic
torque is produced by
the interaction of the armature current and the field current.
• The electromagnetic torque minus disturbance or load torque
drives the inertial load.
49
The DC Servomotor:
Functional Block Diagram
ef Field

circuit Td
i
Tm + wm m
ea Armature a

Magnetic + Mechanical
+ circuit circuit load
--
eb
back
e.m.f.
This diagram provides a description of the system functional

operation and the interconnection of the functional blocks
through the key system variables.
50
The DC Servomotor:
Model Equations
Motor Torque:
Tm  K m ia , where   K f i f is the field flux.
If the field current is constant, if (t) = If then
Tm  K m K f I f ia  K i ia , where K i is the motor torq ue constant.
Armature Circuit:
dia
eb  back emf  K bw m , and ea  eb  Ra ia  La
dt
Mechanical Load:
d 2 m d m
Jm 2
 the net torque  Tm  Td  Bm
dt dt
51
The DC Servomotor:
Model Equations (variable count)
• There are 7 variables in the equations.
(m , wm , Tm , Td , ia , ea , eb )
• There is 1 motor torque equation, 2 armature circuit

equations, 1 mechanical load equation, and one
implied equation, . d m
w m
dt
• With 7 variables and 5 equations, two variables must
be specified as inputs (ea , Td) .
52
The DC Servomotor:
Transfer Function Model
Take the Laplace transform of the equations and solve for m (s) in
terms of Ea(s) and Td(s) .
Tm ( s )  K i I a ( s )
Ea ( s )  sK b m ( s )  Ra I a ( s )  sLa I a ( s )
Tm ( s )  Td ( s )  s 2 J m m ( s )  sBm m ( s )
Now solving for m (s)
K i Ea ( s )  Td ( s )
 m(s) 
s[ La J m s 2  ( Ra J m  La Bm ) s  ( Ra Bm  K b K i )]
53
The DC Servomotor:
Setting Td(s) = 0 , the transfer function is
 m ( s) Ki

Ea ( s) s[ La J m s 2  ( Ra J m  La Bm ) s  ( Ra Bm  K b K i )]
G(s)
Ea(s) m (s)
G(s)
54
The DC Servomotor:
Block Diagram
Td(s)
Ia(s) Tm(s)+ wm(s) m(s)
Ea(s) 1 1
+ 1
Ra  s La
Ki Bm  s J m
+ s
--
Eb(s) Kb
Note: If the armature time constant, La/Ra is much

smaller than the mechanical time constant, Ki
Jm/Bm then the first two blocks simplify to
Ra
55
Block Diagram Reduction
• An overall input/output transfer function can be
obtained from the block diagram by applying some
block diagram reduction rules.
• Series rule:
G1(s) G2(s)  G1(s) G2(s)
• Feedback rule:
G(s) G( s)
+ _ 
1  GH ( s)
H(s)
56
• Feedback rule derivation:
R(s) E(s) C(s)
+ _ G(s) E ( s )  R( s )  H ( s )C ( s )
C ( s)  G ( s) E ( s)
H(s)
then
C ( s )  G ( s )[ R( s )  H ( s )C ( s )]
and
This is a rule
C (s) G ( s)
that is used 
extensively. R( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
57
Servomotor
Td(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G4(s)
Ea(s) 1
+
1 1
m(s)
+
Ra  s La
Ki Bm  s J m
+ s
--
H1(s)
Kb
With Td(s)=0 , first combine the inner forward path.

Ea(s) m(s)
G1 G2 G3(s) G4(s)
+ _
H1(s)
58
Servomotor
Next combine the feedback loop.
Ea(s) G1G2G3 ( s ) m(s)

G4(s)
1  G1G2G3 H1 ( s )
The final series combination is
Ea(s) G1G2G3G4 ( s ) m(s)

1  G1G2G3 H1 ( s )
Note: The defined values of the components may be substituted in

to get the final transfer function in terms of system parameters.
59
Signal Flow Graphs
• The block diagram reduction method works well for
relatively simple block diagrams, but it gets very
confusing for more complicated models.
• A signal flow graph represents the same information

as the block diagram, however it leads to a set of
rules that allow a systematic approach to finding the
overall input/output transfer function.
60
The Signal Flow Graph Method
• The main steps are as follows:
a) construct the signal flow graph either from a
block diagram or from the basic physical
connection of system components (the transfer
functions of the components must be known).
b) Identify and calculate the various paths and
loops in the signal flow graph.
c) With the results from b), apply a formula,
Mason’s formula, to determine the overall
transfer function.
61
Signal Flow Graph Elements
• Nodes, branches and transmission elements
x1 t12 x2 x1 x2
 t12
node node
branch
x2 = t12 x1 t12  G12(s)
• Summation node Distribution node

x1 t14 t12 x2 x2 = t12 x1
t24 t13
x2 x4 x1
t34 x3 x3 = t13 x1
t14
x3 x4 = t14 x1
x4 = t14 x1 + t24 x2 + t34 x3 x4
62
Signal Flow Graph Construction
• Write down and label the nodes from input to
output, representing all the important signals.
• Draw in all the branches connecting the nodes and

write down their transmission functions.
• Check for any additional nodes and branches

required in the feedback paths.
63
Signal Flow Graph Example:
Servomotor System
Td(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G4(s)
Ea(s) x1 1 x2 + x3 1 x4 m(s)
+ 1
Ra  s La
Ki Bm  s J m
+ s x5
--
H1(s)
Kb
Td(s)
1
Ea(s) 1 x1 G x2 G
1 2
x3 G x4 G4
3
m(s)
-H1
64
Signal Flow Graphs
Definitions
• Source node: only has outgoing branches.
• Sink node: only has incoming branches.
• Path: continuous unidirectional succession of branches
(passes through no node more than once).
• Forward path: a path from input to output.
• Feedback path or loop: originates and terminates at the
same node.
• Non-touching paths: paths with no common nodes.
• Path gain or loop gain: product of branch gains or
transmission functions along the path. 65
Signal Flow Graphs
Mason’s Formula
1
T   M k k k  1 p ; p the number of forward paths.
 k
where
 loop gain products 
  1   (all loop gains)    
 of non touching pairs 
 loop gain products of   loop gain products of 
       
 non touching groups of three   non touching groups of four 
M k  k th forward path gain
 k   defined only using loops not touching the k th forward path.
66
Mason’s Formula:
A Systematic Approach
1. Identify all forward paths and write the path gains Mk .
2. Identify all loops and write the loop gains.
3. Identify all non touching loop pairs and write down
the loop gain products.
4. Do the same for groups of 3, 4, … non touching loops.
5. Calculate  as defined.
6. Identify all loops not touching forward path k , and
repeat steps 2 -> 5 to calculate k .
7. Apply Mason’s formula to calculate the overall
transfer function.
67
Mason’s Formula:
 m (s)
Servomotor Example, E a (s)
Td(s)
Ea(s) 1 x1 G x2 G x3 G x4 G4 m(s)
1 2 3
-H1
• Forward paths:
M1  Ea x1 x2 x3 x4 m Gain = G1G2G3G4
• Feedback loops:
L1  x1 x2 x3 x4 x1 Loop gain = - G1G2G3H1
• Non touching loop pairs: none
68
Mason’s Formula:
 m (s)
Servomotor Example, E a (s)
then,  = 1 + G1G2G3H1
• Loops not touching forward path 1: none

then, 1 = 1
• Apply Mason’s formula.
 m (s ) M 1 1 G1G2G3G4
T  
Ea ( s )  1  G1G2G3 H1
69
Mason’s Formula:
 m (s)
Servomotor Example, Td ( s )
• Consider the transfer function from the disturbance

input, Td(s) to the output,m(s) , with (Ea = 0).
• The forward path is now
M1  Td x3 x4 m Gain = G3G4
• The loops are not changed, so  and 1 are unchanged.
• Applying Mason’s formula
 m (s ) M 1 1 G3G4
T  
Td ( s)  1  G1G2G3 H1
Note: The denominator has not changed.
70
Mason’s Formula:
Example 2.8 in P&H
G6
R’(s) 1 G1 x1 G2 x2 G x3 G4
3
x4 G5 C(s)
R(s)
-H1 -H2
• Forward Paths:
M1  R’R x3 x4 C Gain = G6G4G5
M2  R’R x1 x2 x3 x4 C Gain = G1G2G3G4G5
71
Mason’s Formula:
Example 2.8 in P&H
• Feedback loops:
L1  x1 x2 x1 Loop gain = – G2H1
L2  x3 x4 x3 Loop gain = – G4H2
• Non touching loop pairs:
L1 L2  Loop gain = G2G4H1H2
then  = 1 – (– G2H1 – G4H2) + (G2G4H1H2)

= 1 + G2H1 + G4H2 + G2G4H1H2
72
Mason’s Formula:
Example 2.8 in P&H
• Loops not touching forward path 1 : L1
then, 1 = 1 – (– G2H1 ) = 1 + G2H1
• Loops not touching forward path 2 : none
then, 2 = 1
• Now applying Mason’s formula
C ( s) M 11  M 2  2 G6G4G5 (1  G2 H1 )  G1G2G3G4G5

T  
R( s)  1  G2 H1  G4 H 2  G2G4 H1 H 2
73
Eceg 402
w n2
G(s)  2
s  2Vw n s  w n2
Section 3.
Performance Specifications
and Second-Order Systems
S tep Res pons e
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Amplitude
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30
Time (s ec.)
• Consider the time domain characteristics of
systems in terms of special test inputs.
– step input: r (t )  0 t  0
r(t)
 A t >0 A
A
R( s ) 
s 0 t
– ramp input: r (t )  0 t  0 r(t)
 At t > 0
A
R( s )  2 slope A units/s
s
0 t
75
Test Inputs
r(t)
– parabolic input: r (t )  0 t  0
 At 2 t > 0 At2
A
R( s )  2
s3
0 t
– unit impulse input:  (t )  0 t < 0  (t)

  t 0 1/
note: 0  (t )dt  1
0 t >0
 0
R( s )  1
0 t
76
A Second-Order System
• Consider the general solution of the
following second-order system.
c(t)
d 2c(t ) d c(t ) r(t)
2
 a  b c(t )  r (t ) System
dt dt
Using Laplace transforms to solve the equation

d c ( 0)
s C ( s )  s c(0) 
2  a s C ( s )  a c ( 0)  b C ( s )  R ( s )
dt
R( s) ( s  a ) c(0)  d c(0) / dt
C (s)  
s2  a s  b s2  a s  b s2  a s  b
77
Second-Order System Response
Step Input (real roots)
• Assume that for t < 0, r(t) = 0 and c(0) =

dc(0)/dt = 0 , then
R(s)
C (s) 
s2  a s  b
• With a step input, R(s) = 1/s and
1  1 
C(t)  L  
 s(s  a s  b) 
2
78
Step Input (real roots)
• Use partial fraction expansion to obtain the

inverse Laplace. Assume the characteristic
equation can be factored into two real roots.
s 2  a s  b  0  s  s 1 , s  s 2
Then by partial fraction expansion
1 1 k1 k2 k3
   
s( s 2  a s  b) s( s  s 1 )(s  s 2 ) s s  s 1 s  s 2
where k1 , k2 , k3 are the residues and are calculated as follows:
79
Second-Order System
partial fraction expansion residues
1 1
k1  s 
s ( s  s 1 )( s  s 2 ) s  0 s 1s 2 Note:
1 1  k 
1
   s  L  
k2
s(s  s 1 )( s
 s 2)
(s 1)
s 1 (s 1  s 2 ) s s 
s  s 1
1  k / s 
1 1 L  
k3   (s  s 2 )   s
1 s / 
s( s  s 1 )( s  s 2 ) s 2 (s 2  s 1 )
s  s 2 s
ke t
then
1 1 s t 1 s t
c (t )   e 1
 e 2
ss s (s  s ) s (s  s )
1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1
exponential responses
80
Second-Order System Step Response
 s 2  s 1t s s 2 t 
c (t ) 
1
1  e  1
e 
s 1s 2  s 1 s 2
s 1 s 2 
1
1
s 1s 2
C(t)
0.5
s2 s 1t Note:
s 1 s 2
e
0
The total response is the
weighted sum of the
responses associated
-0.5
s1 s 2t with each root of the
 e characteristic equation.
-1
s 1 s 2
-1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
seconds
81
Fundamental Responses or
System Modes
• The total response is made up of the sum of individual
exponential responses and a constant. These responses
are the system fundamental responses or modes,
e-s1 t and e-s2 t .
• These responses will decay to 37% of their initial value
when t = 1/s1 for the first mode and t = 1/s2 for the
second mode. These times correspond to the time
constants of the modes,
1 = 1/s1 and 2 = 1/s2 .
82
Fundamental Responses or
System Modes
• What would one expect if any of the roots were
positive?
• What governs the speed of the system response?
• Remember, the characteristic equation is define by
the denominator polynomial of the transfer
function, and s1 , s2 are the roots of this
characteristic equation.
83
Step Input (complex roots)
• Use partial fraction expansion to obtain the inverse Laplace.
The roots of the characteristic equation are
a a2
s asb  0  s   
2
 b  s  jw
2 4
Then by partial fraction expansion
1 1

s( s  a s  b) s( s  s  jw )( s  s  jw )
2
k1 k2 k3
  
s s  s  jw s  s  jw
where k1 , k2 , k3 are the residues and are calculated as follows:
84
Second-Order System
partial fraction expansion residues
1 1
k1   2
( s  s  jw )(s  s  jw ) s 0 s  w 2
k2 
1

1

1
e j (  / 2)
s( s  s  jw ) s s  jw (s  jw )(2 jw ) s 2  w 2 2w
k3  k 2 
1
e j (  / 2)
s 2  w 2 2w
w
where   tan 1
s
Now the time response is found by applying the inverse
Laplace transform to each term as follows.
85
Second-Order System
Time Response (complex roots)
1 1   j (  / 2) s t  jw t
c(t )   e e e
s w
2 2
2w s  w 
2 2
 e j (  / 2)es te jw t

s t
 2
1

e {cos(w t     / 2)}
s w w s 2 w 2
2
This is a
1  s 2 w 2 s t  damped
 2 1  e sin(w t   )
s w2  w  sinusoidal
time response
exponential decay
86
Second-Order System
Time Response (complex roots)
Step Response
1
 2 2
s w
1.6
 s t sin(w t   )
1.4 e A sinusoidal
1.2
waveform with
frequency w and a
Amplitude
0.8 damping envelope

0.6 of
s t
0.4
e
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec.)
87
Second-Order Systems
Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio
2
a a
s2  a s  b  0  s    b  s  jw
2 4
• When a = 0 , the damping is zero and the resulting
frequency is the natural frequency, w n  b
• The ratio of the damping constant, s to the natural
s
frequency is the damping ratio, V 
w n
• The relationships between the damping constant,

the damping ratio, the damped frequency and the
natural frequency are s  V w n , w  w n 1  V 2
88
Second-Order Systems
Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio
• The standard form of a second-order system

may be written in terms of V and wn.
wn2
2
 Vw
s 2 ns  w n
2
• The step response in these terms is

1 V w t
c (t )  1  e n
sin( w n 1V 2 t   )
1V
2

1  1  V
2 
where   tan 
 V 
 
89
Standard Second-Order
Step Responses
Step Response
wn = 1.0
1.8
1.6 __ V = 0.1
1.4
__ V = 0.2
1.2
__ V = 0.5
Amplitude
0.8 __ V = 1.0
0.6
w n2
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30
2
 Vw
s 2 ns  w n
2
Time (sec.)
90
Roots Plotted in the
Complex “s-plane”
• The roots of the characteristic equation, also
known as the system poles, may be plotted
and interpreted in the complex s-plane.
• Consider the complex root pair
s  s 1 jw 1
s1
with w n1 w 1  s 1 and V 1 
2 2
w 12  s 1 2
91
Roots Plotted in the
Complex “s-plane”
Step Response
1.8
1.6 The damping

1.4 complex s-plane
ratio is related to
jw
1.2
the angle,  by
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
s1
0.4
 w1 cos( )  V
wn1 w 21 s 2
0.2
0
0 10 20 30
Time (sec.)
 s
The natural
-s1 frequency is the
distance from the
 -w1
origin to the poles.
w n 1  w 12s1 2
92
Effects of Root Locations
in the Complex “s-plane”
• Moving the roots to the right
 reduced damping, similar natural frequency.
• Moving the roots away from the real axis
 reduced damping, higher frequency.
• Moving the roots along a constant  line
 constant damping, higher natural frequency.
• Moving the roots to lie on the imaginary axis
 an oscillator, zero damping.
• Moving the roots to the right of the imaginary axis
 growing oscillations, an unstable system.
93
Effects of Root Locations
in the Complex “s-plane”
  jw Step Response
  w1 1.2
Amplitude
0.8
-s1 0.6
0.4
  -w1 0.2
 
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec.)
94
• Stability: jw

– Specified damping ratio or  s
a region of the s-plane with
a minimum damping ratio. 
– Specified maximum
Step Response
percent overshoot, P.O. 1.8
1.6
Mp
M p  css
1.4
P.O.   100% css

1.2
Amplitude
1
css 0.8
V /
0.6
 1V 2
 100e
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30
for second-order systems. Time (sec.)
95
• Speed of Response:
– Specified bandwidth ( wb corresponding to the
point where the gain is -3db from the low
frequency gain). For a second-order system,
wb = wn when, V = 1/2.
jw
min.
wn 
– Specified region in
s
the s-plane with a
minimum wn . 
96
• Speed of Response (continued):
– Specified rise time, Tr (time from 10% to 90%
of steady-state). 1.8
Step Response
1.6
1.4
Tp
– Specified time to 1.2
first peak, Tp . 90%

1
0.8

Tp 
0.6
w n 1 V
0.4
2
10% 0.2
for second-order systems. 0

0 10 20 30
Tr Time (sec.)
97
• Combined stability and speed max.
jw
-s 
of response: s
– Specified maximum of the real 
part of the roots. Roots to lie to
the left of a boundary value. 1.8
Step Response
– Specified settling time, Ts

1.6
1.4
(time to stay within  of 1.2
 1
the steady-state value). 0.8
 s Ts
For    2% , e  0 . 02
0.6
0.4
Ts
4 4
Ts  
0.2
then
s Vw
0
0 10 20 30
n 98
Time (sec.)
• Steady-state accuracy:
– Specification of the maximum error in steady-
state (after all dynamics have settled).
1.8
1.6
reference
1.4
cref  css
1.2
ess ess %  100%

1
cref
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 Time (sec.) 20 30
99
Step Responses of
Higher-Order Systems
• The step response of higher-order systems
may be determined through partial fraction
expansion as before.
k0 k1 k2 k2 k3
C ( s)       
s s  s 1 s  s 2  jw 2 s  s 2  jw 2 s  s 3
where k0 , k1 , … are the residues, then
s t s t s t
 
c(t ) k 0 k1e 1  k2e 2 w
sin( 2t   
) k3e 3 
2
system modes or fundamental responses

100
Step Responses of
• The total response of the system is the
weighted sum of the system modes.
• Some modes may be relatively fast and
decay away quickly leaving the slower,
dominate modes affecting the majority of
the response.
• Systems may be approximated by lower-
order systems by eliminating fast well
damped modes.
101
• Performance specifications such as rise time,
percent overshoot and settling time also apply
to higher-order systems.
• Design regions in the complex s-plane also
apply to higher-order systems where all roots
of the characteristic equation must lie in the
permissible region.
• First and second-order design specifications
can apply to the dominant dynamics of
higher-order systems. 102
Eceg 402
Section 4.
Characteristics of
Closed-Loop Systems
feedforward control
Gf(s)
+
R(s) E(s) + C(s)
+
Gc(s) Gp(s)
– cascade compensator
H(s)
• Define the control objectives.
• Define a control system structure
• Define the desired performance specifications.
• Design a controller or compensator to meet the
specifications. plant
error plant
output
signal input Physical
Reference Controller
representing the + Plant
desired measured –
output measured output
Sensor
104
Control System Structures
• Consider the standard control feedback.
R(s) E(s) C(s)
Gc(s) Gp(s)
+
H(s)
Then
Gc G p ( s )
C (s)  R( s)
1  Gc G p H ( s )
105
Cascade Compensation
• Ideally, we would like the measured output to
be equal to the reference input, H(s)C(s)=R(s) .
• If Gc(s)Gp(s) = Kc , where Kc   ,
then
Kc 1
C ( s)  R( s)  C (s)  R( s)
1  K c H (s) H (s)
• For this ideal control, the controller needs to be

1
Gc ( s )  K c G p ( s )
106
Cascade Compensation
• Therefore, the controller would cancel or
compensate the plant dynamics and
introduce a high series gain.
• Generally, it is not possible in practice to
exactly compensate the plant dynamics and
instead approximate compensation is used.
• This control structure is referred to as series
or cascade compensation.
107
Feedback Compensation
• This control structure compensates for the plant
dynamics through a local feedback compensator.
R(s) E(s) U(s) C(s)
Kc Gp(s)
+ +
– –
Gc(s)
feedback compensator
H(s)
108
Feedback Compensation
• Consider the inner block.
Modified plant
C ( s) G p ( s)
  Gp ( s ) dynamic
U ( s) 1  GcG p ( s ) characteristics
then
C ( s) K c G p ( s) K cG p (s)
 
R( s) 1  K c G p H (s) 1  Gc G p ( s )  K c G p H ( s )
• Design Kc for steady-state error performance

and Gc(s) for dynamic performance.
109
Feedforward Control
• Allows direct input into the plant in response
to reference changes without waiting for
feedback effects.
feedforward control
Gf (s)
+
R(s) E(s) + C(s)
Gc(s) Gp(s)
+
H(s)
110
Eceg 402
Section 5.
Stability
complex GH-plane
complex s-plane mapping s  GH(s) Im{GH(jw)}
jw
s Re{GH(jw)}
-1
RHS
Stability Definitions
• Bounded Input Bounded Output Stability:
A system is BIBO stable if, for every bounded
input, the output remains bounded with
increasing time (all system poles must lie in the
left half of the s-plane).
• Marginal Stability:
A system is marginally stable if some of the poles
lie on the imaginary axis, while all others are in
the LHS of the s-plane. Some inputs may result
in the output becoming unbounded with time.
112
Stability Analysis
• To test the stability of a LTI system we need only
examine the poles of the system, i.e. the roots of
the characteristic equation.
• Methods are available for testing for roots with
positive real parts, which do not require the
actual solution of the characteristic equation.
• Also, methods are available for testing the
stability of a closed-loop system based only on
the loop transfer function characteristics.
113
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• A quick method for checking BIBO stability.
• Assume the characteristic polynomial is
n 1
Q ( s )  an s  an 1s
n
   a1s  a0
where a0  0 .
• A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for
all roots to have non-positive real parts is that
all coefficients have the same sign.
• For the necessary and sufficient conditions,
first form the Routh array. 114
The Routh Array
n 1
Q( s )  an s  an 1s
n
   a1s  a0
n
s an an-2 an-4 an-6 …
n-1
s an-1 an-3 an-5 an-7 … where
n-2
s b1 b2 b3 b4 … an1 an 2  an an 3
sn-3 c1 c2 c3 c4 … b1 
an1
: : : :
2 an 1 an 4  an an5
s k1 k2 b2 
1 an 1
s l1
0 etc.
s m1
115
The Routh Array
• In a similar manner, elements in the 4th
row, c1, c2 , … are calculated based on the
two previous rows.
b1 an 3  an1 b2
c1 
b1
b1 an 5  an 1 b3
c2 
b1
• The elements in all subsequent rows are
calculated in the same manner.
116
Necessary and sufficient conditions:
• If all elements in the first column of the Routh
array have the same sign, then all roots of the
characteristic equation have negative real parts.
• If there are sign changes in these elements, then
the number of roots with non-negative real parts
is equal to the number of sign changes.
• Elements in the first column which are zero
define a special case.
117
Example 1:
Q ( s ) 2 s s 3s  5s  10
 4
 3
 2
4 3  10 10  0
s 2 3 10 0 b1   7 b2   10
3 1 1
s 1 5 0 0  35  10
2 b1 b2 0 c1   6 . 43
s 7
1 c1 0
s 10 ( 6 . 43 )  0
0 d1   10
s d1 6 . 43
The characteristic equation has two roots with positive real parts
since the elements of the first column have two sign changes.
(2,1,-7,6.43,10)
118
Special Case 1:
• A zero in the first column:
• Remedy: substitute  for the zero element, finish
the Routh array, and then let   0 .
Q( s)  s 3  3s  2  3  2 2
b1   (negative)
 
3 1 -3 0 0
s b1  2
c1  2
0() 2
2 0
s b1
1 b1 0
s There are two roots with positive
0
s c1 real parts (1, , -2/ , 2)
119
Special Case 2:
• An all zero row in the Routh array which
corresponds to pairs of roots with opposite signs.
• Remedy:
– form an auxiliary polynomial from the coefficients in
the row above.
– Replace the zero coefficients from the coefficients of
the differentiated auxiliary polynomial.
– If there is not a sign change, the roots of the
auxiliary equation define the roots of the system on
the imaginary axis.
120
Special Case 2 (example):
Q( s) s s  s  1
 4
 3
Auxiliary polynomial
4
s 1 0 -1 0 s2  1
3 1 -1 0 0
s then
s2 1 -1 0 d ( s 2  1)
2s
1 02 0 ds
s
0 d1 d1 = –1
s
The system has one root with a positive real part ( 1, 1, 1, 2, -1).
The root is found from the auxiliary eq. s2 – 1 = 0 , s = ± 1
121
Parameter Range Test
• The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion may
be used to find the range of a parameter for
which the closed-loop systems is stable.
• Leave the parameter as an unknown
coefficient in the characteristic polynomial,
form the Routh array, check the range of the
parameter such that the first column does
not change sign.
122
Parameter Range Example
Q( s) s 6s 11s  6s  K
 4
 3
 2
60  6 K
s4 1 11 K 0 c1  d1  K
3 10
s 6 6 0 0
2 10 K 0 Then for stability,
s
1 c1 0 K >0
s
0 d1 60  6 K > 0  K < 10
s
\ 0 < K < 10
123
Relative Stability Analysis
The Nyquist Criterion
• The Routh-Hurwitz Criterion provides a check
of absolute stability based on the closed-loop
• The Nyquist Criterion may be used to analyse
the relative stability of the closed-loop system
based on the loop characteristics.
• Relative stability refers to how close the system
the system is to the absolute stability boundary.
124
Relative Stability Analysis
• Consider the general feedback system
R(s) C(s) The closed-loop
+
G(s)
transfer function is
–
C ( s)  G ( s)
H(s)
R ( s ) 1  GH ( s )
• The characteristic equation is
1  GH ( s )  0
• Define F(s) as
F ( s )  1  GH ( s)
125
• F(s) is a rational polynomial in s and can be
written generally as
( s  z1 )( s  z2 )( )
F (s) 
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )( )
where -zi are the zeroes of F(s) and -pi are the
poles of F(s) .
Note: the zeroes of F(s)  the roots of the

characteristic equation  poles of the closed-
loop system.
126
The Nyquist Criterion:
Notes on Zeroes and Poles
 The zeroes of F(s) are the values of s that make F(s) = 0
and the poles are the values of s that make F(s) =  .
 If GH ( s)  N L ( s) , then F (s)  1  N L ( s)  DL ( s)  N L ( s)
DL ( s ) DL ( s) DL ( s)
 The denominator and numerator order of F(s) are equal
to the order of the loop transfer function GH(s) .
 poles of F(s)  poles of GH(s) (loop transfer function)

 zeroes of F(s)  roots of the characteristic equation,
DL ( s)  N L ( s) = 0
127
The Principle of the Argument
• The stability analysis of the closed-loop system
now becomes the task of finding if there are any
zeroes of F(s) in the right hand side (RHS) of the
s-plane.
• This is achieved through the application of the
principle of the argument, a result from general
complex number theory.
• This involves a function mapping from the
complex s-plane to the complex F(s) or GH(s)
plane. 128
The Principle of the Argument:
Some Definitions
• Encirclements in the complex plane.
Im Im
Path  is a
 counter-
 A clockwise Re
Re clockwise
encirclement of A
point A encirclement
• Enclosements in the complex plane.

Im Im
The area to the
 
Re Re right of the path 
is the area
enclosed by  .
129
Complex Function Mapping
• S-plane  F(s) complex plane mapping.
jw Im{F}
s1 unique
s2 F(s1)

s Re{F}
s3 F(s2)
non unique
F(s3)
• If F(s) is analytic along the path  (no poles of F(s) on
) and s starts at s = s1 and traces a closed path
terminating at s1 , then F(s) will trace a closed path in
the F plane starting at F(s1) and terminating at F(s1) .
130
• The principle of the argument states that for an
arbitrary closed path  in the s-plane, the
corresponding closed path in the F plane will
encircle the origin as many times as the
difference between the number of zeroes of F(s)
and poles of F(s) located in the area enclosed by
the path  .
• The direction of the encirclements of origin is the
same as the path  if the number of zeroes of
F(s) is greater than the poles. 131
The Nyquist Path
• Define the Nyquist jw
j
path  such that it
 
encloses the right Poles of F(s)
hand side of the s- s


plane, but does not

go through any
poles of F(s). -j
132
• Map F(s) for the Nyquist path enclosing the RHS.
• Then the number of clockwise encirclements of
the origin of the F(s) plane is N = Z – P , where
Z is the number of zeroes of F(s) in the RHS,
P is the number of poles of F(s) in the RHS.
Z, corresponds to the number of poles of the closed- loop
system in the RHS.
P, corresponds to the number poles of the loop transfer
function in the RHS.
133
• Normally, P is known. If the loop transfer
function is stable, then P = 0 and N must be zero
for a stable closed-loop system.
• If P is non zero, then there must be P
counterclockwise encirclements of the origin.
• A slight modification of the process is to map the
GH(s) function rather than F(s) and then check
for encirclements of the –1 point in the complex
GH(s) plane. This works since F(s) = 1 + GH(s) .
134
A Simple Example
• Consider a system with the loop TF
K
s-plane GH ( s)  GH-plane
s(s  a)
jw Im{GH}
j
j mapping
Pole of 
GH

s Re{GH}
-1
-j -j
135
A Simple Example
• The number of encirclements of the –1 point in
the GH-plane is zero, N = 0.
• The number poles of the loop transfer function
GH(s) in the RHS, is zero (P = 0). Note: the
Nyquist path excludes the pole at the origin.
• Therefore, the number of poles of the closed-
loop system = the zeroes of 1 + GH(s), in the
RHS, is Z = N + P = 0 + 0 = 0 .
• The closed-loop system is stable.
136
Sketching the GH(s) Function
• In most cases only an approximate sketch of the
GH(s) mapping is required.
• Consider various segments of the Nyquist path.
jw Section I : s =  e j ;   0
j
 = –90  +90
II III
Section II : s = j0+  j

s
I Section III : s = R e j ; R  
IV  = +90  –90
-j Section IV : s = – j  j0–
137
• Consider a general loop transfer function
K( s  z1 )( s  z2 )( )
GH ( s )  k
s ( s  p1 )( s  p2 )( )
• Section I: ( s =  e j ,   0 ,  = – 90º  + 90º )
K (  e j
 z1 )(  )
GH (  e )  k j k
j
 e (  e j  p1 )(  )
as   0 As  varies from
– 90º +90º (CCW)
Kz1z 2 
GH    /  k /GH varies from
 e p1p2 
k j k
k 90º  – k 90º (CW)
138
• Section II: (s = jw , w = 0+ )
w  0 w
GH ( j )   
/ k 90

w  w   
GH ( j ) 0 / (n m)90

where, n = the order of the denominator of GH

m = the order of the numerator of GH
This represents the normal frequency response of
the loop system GH(jw).
139
• Section IV:
This section is the mirror image of Section II.
• Section III: ( s = Re j , R   ,  = +90º  –90º )

j K ( R e j
 z1 )(  ) K
GH ( R e )  k j k j
 ( n  m ) j ( n  m )
R e ( R e  p1 )(  ) R e
 0 / (n  m)
This corresponds to (n-m)180 º counter-clockwise rotations

about the origin.
140
Example 1 GH (s)  K
s 2 (s  a)
Sec. II:
Nyquist Path
s = j 0+ , GH(jw)   /-180º
jw s = j , GH(jw)  0 /-270º
j
II
Sec. III: no effect.
III

s Sec. IV: mirror image of II.
I Sec. I: (k = 2) Then GH(j0)
IV rotates 360º clockwise from
-j GH(j0–) to GH(j0+) with a
magnitude of  .
141
s 2 (s  a)
j Im{GH} • Stability Analysis:

– There are 2 clockwise
rotations of GH(s) about the
“–1” point, \ N = 2.
GH(j0+)
Re{GH}
– No poles of GH(s) in the
-1
GH(j0–) RHS, \ P=0 .
– Then, Z = N+P = 2 which
means there are two poles of
-j the closed-loop system in the
RHS, i.e. the system is
unstable.
142
Example 2 GH ( s ) 
K
s ( s  a )( s  b)
Sec. II:
jw s = j 0+ , GH(jw)   /-90º
j
s = j , GH(jw)  0 /-270º
II III Sec. III: no effect.

s
I
Sec. IV: mirror image of II.
IV Sec. I: (k = 1) Then GH(j0)
-j
rotates 180º clockwise from
GH(j0–) to GH(j0+) with a
magnitude of  .
143
Example 2 GH ( s ) 
K
s ( s  a )( s  b)
j Im{GH}
• Where is the “–1” point?
GH(jwc)
• If the “–1” point is inside
the GH path, then
Re{GH}
N=2 , P= 0 and Z=2
\ the system is unstable.
-1
• If the “–1” point is to the

-j left of the GH path, then
N=0 , P= 0 and Z=0
Find |GH(jwc)| where wc is \ the system is stable.
defined by Im{GH(jwc)} = 0 .
144
s ( s  a )( s  b)
K
GH ( jw ) 
jw ( jw  a )( jw  b)
K

 jw 3  ab jw  ( a  b)w 2
For, Im{GH ( jw c )}  0 Check if this is

 jw c3  ab jw c  0  w c  ab less than –1 .
K K
Then, GH ( jw c )  
 ( a  b)w c  ( a  b)ab
2
145
Relative Stability
Gain and Phase Margins
• Gain and phase margins are a measure of
how close the system is to instability.
Im{GH}
Gain Margin: the additional gain
in db, that will make the system
|GH(jwc)|
critically stable.
1
20 log10
Re{GH} GH ( jw c )
-1 fm
 Phase Margin: the additional phase
lag in degrees, that will make the
system critically stable.
fm  180  
146
Special Example GH (s)  K
s2  2
 e j
Sec. II:
j 2 s = j 0+ , GH(jw)  K/2
s = j , GH(jw)  0 /-180º
Sec. I: Let s  j 2  e j
jw
j where   0 ;   90o  90o
II  III then K
GH ( s ) 
I s (j 2   j 2
e ) 2
IV 
K

 2  j 2 2 e j   2e j 2  2
-j 147
Special Example GH (s)  K
s2  2
j Im{GH}
For   0
K
GH ( s ) 

2 2 e j (  90 )
Re{GH}
  / (  90)
-1 K/2
• Section III: no effect
• Section IV: mirror image
-j of II.
There are no net rotations about the “–1” point, therefore, N = 0.
Since P = 0 ( no roots of GH in the RHS), Z = 0 and the closed
loop system is stable for all values of K.
148
r(t) = A sin(wt)
Eceg 402
G(s)
Section 6. c(t) = |G(wt)| A sin(wt +  )
Frequency Response Analysis

Magnitude (dB)
Bode Diagram
0
-20
-40
-60
0
Phase (deg)
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
10-1 100 101 102
Frequency (rad/sec)
Frequency Response Methods
Stability Analysis
• The Nyquist plot provides absolute and
relative stability information about the
closed-loop system, based on a plot of the
loop characteristics of the system.
• The most important section of the Nyquist
plot corresponds to section II of the Nyquist
path, s = jw , with w = 0+   .
• This corresponds to the frequency response
characteristics of the loop transfer function.
150
Frequency Response Methods
Stability Analysis
• In the Nyquist plot, this information is plotted in
polar form, magnitude and phase angle as
frequency is varied.
• This same information can be plotted in two
rectangular plots of magnitude (in dB) vs.
frequency and phase angle vs. frequency (Bode
plots).
• The same Nyquist relative stability criteria can
be interpreted in terms of these rectangular plots
151
Frequency Response of a System
• Consider the response of a system, G(s) to a
sinusoidal input, u(t) = A sin(wt) . Then the
output is C ( s)  G ( s )  R( s)  G ( s ) Aw
s2  w 2
• Solve for c(t) through partial fraction expansion.
b1 b1 k1 k2
C (s)     
s  jw s  jw s  p1 s  p2
Aw G ( s ) A G ( jw ) w
A G( j ) e j
b1  ( s  jw ) 2  
s  w s  jw
2
2j 2j
152
w
A G(s)  w w
AG( j )  A G( j ) e
 j
  w
b1 ( s j ) 2 
s  w 2 s   jw 2j 2j
where
  / G ( jw )
• Now if G(s) is stable, then the remaining terms

will be modes with exponentially decaying
responses, and the “steady-state” response is
 e j e jw t e  j e  jw t 
css  A G ( jw )     A G ( jw ) sin(wt   )
 2j 2j 
153
• Thus the output is equal to the input sinusoid
multiplied by the gain, |G(jw)| and shifted by
the angle, /G(jw) .
• These characteristics can be obtained by
substituting, s = jw into G(s), or from
measurements on the physical system.
r(t) = A sin(wt) c(t) = |G(wt)| A sin(wt +  )
G(s)
154
Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plots
• Bode plots are a pair of rectangular plots of the
magnitude and phase of a transfer function vs.
the log of frequency.
• Plot the magnitude or gain of the system in dB,
20 log10 G( jw ) vs. frequency on a semi-log scale.
• Plot the angle, /G ( jw ) vs. frequency on a semi-
log scale.
• This represents the information from Section II
of the Nyquist plot.
155
Bode Plots: 5 100
G ( s)   2
Example s  1 s  2 s  100
Bode Diagram Constructing Bode Plots
Magnitude (dB)
0 • Calculate the complex

-20 number G(jw) for
-40 several frequencies and
-60
plot the points.
0
Phase (deg)
-50 • Use MatLab to

-100 automatically plot the
-150
-200
Bode plots.
-250
10-1 100 101 102
• Use asymptotic
Frequency (rad/sec) approximations.
156
Constructing Bode Plots:
Asymptotic Approximations
• Consider the general form of transfer functions.
K ( jw  z1 )( jw  z2 )( ) 
G ( jw ) 
w k
j (j w  w 2
 Vw
p1 )(( j ) 2 n j w  w 2
n )
• This may be written in Bode form by dividing

through by all the constants.
jw jw
K B (1  )(1  )( ) 
w  z1 z2
G( j )
jw jw  w 
2
jw (1 
k
)(1  2V    )( ) 
p1 wn  wn 
157
K z1 z2 
where the Bode Gain is K B 
w
p1 n 
2
• Now consider the gain of G(jw) in dB.

G ( jw ) dB  20 log10 G ( jw )
jw jw
 K B dB  1   1  
z1 dB z2 dB
jw 2V jw  w 
2
 ( jw )k
 1  1    
dB
p1 dB wn  wn  dB
158
• The angle of G(jw) may be written as
jw jw
/ G( jw )  K B  1   1  
z1 z2
w   2V jw   w  
2
 ( jw )  1  j
k
1 
p1 wn  wn 
• Thus it is clear that for both magnitude in
dB and the angle, the total transfer function
may be written in terms of the sum of its
components 159
Individual Components:
Poles and Zeros at the Origin
• Poles at the origin: 1
Bode Diagrams ( jw ) k
Plot
1
vs. log 10 w
Magnitude (dB)
40
jw
20 log 10
20 ( jw )k
 k  20 log 10 w vs. log 10 w

0 Slope =
1 -20 dB/dec.
-20
-40 jw a constant slope of – k20 dB per

decade of frequency.
Phase (deg)
50
0
The angle is constant at – k90
-50
-90 • Zeroes at the origin: ( jw )k
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2 the same, but with the
Frequency (rad/sec)
opposite sign
160
1
First-Order Poles 1  jw / p
w  w 
2
1
angle  tan  
1
gain dB   20 log10 1   
1  jw / p dB  p  p
– for w << p
gain dB  20 log10 (1)  0 , angle  0o
– for w = p
gain dB  20 log10 ( 2 )  3dB , angle   tan -1 (1)   45 o
– for w >> p w 
gain dB  20 log10   , angle   90o
 p
161
First-Order Poles and Zeros
First-Order Pole and Zero
• Plot these on a scaled
frequency axis w/p.
Magnitude (dB)
20
1  jw / z
10 • Zeroes are the same but
0 Slope =
-3dB 1 -20 dB/dec.
with the opposite sign.
-10
-20
1  jw / p • Asymptotic
approximations fit the high
Phase (deg)
50
frequency and low
0
-45
-50
frequency characteristics.
10 -1 10 0 10 1
• w = p is the corner
Frequency (rad/sec) w/p frequency of the pole/zero.
162
1
Second-Order Poles w w 
2
1  2V j   
• for w << wn wn  wn 
1
gain dB  20 log10  0 dB , angle  0
1 0  0
• for w = wn
1 1 
gain dB  20 log10  , angle  90
1  2V j  1 2V dB
• for w >> wn
1
w
gain dB  20 log10 w  w   40 log10 w
2
2V j   
w w
n
A slope of 40dB n  n
per decade. 163
1
Second-Order Poles
w w 
2
1  2V j   
 2V  wn  wn 
angle  - tan 
-1
  180
  w / wn 
• w = wn is the corner frequency and the gain

at this point is 1/2z and the angle is 90.
Note that for z = 1, the gain is 6dB and for
z= 0, the gain is  .
• Plot the characteristics on a normalized
frequency scale.
164
Second-Order Poles
Second-Order Poles
z = 0.05
20
Magnitude (dB)
40dB/dec.
-20 z = 1.0
6dB
-40
0
Phase (deg)
-50
-100
90
-150
w
-1 0 1
10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec) wn
165
Non-Minimum Phase
• Non-minimum phase refers to a system with a
final phase more negative than expected from
the order of denominator and numerator.
• A zero in the RHS, (s + z) has the same
magnitude characteristics as the zero in the LHS,
but has the opposite angle. The final angle is
90 rather than +90 .
• The final phase of a system with a RHS zero will
be 180 more negative than with a LHS zero
166
 s
Non-Minimum Phase e
• A second non-minimum phase component is a
time delay or transportation lag which is
represented by es , where is the delay
time in seconds.
• The frequency characteristic is ejw . The
magnitude is 1.0 (0dB) for all frequencies and so
it does not affect the magnitude plot.
• The phase angle is w. When plotted against
log10w, this results in an exponential decrease in
phase. 167
Bode Plot Construction:
Example 1 10( s  10)
G (s) 
s( s  5)(s  2)
• Bode Form:
10 ( j w  10) 10 (1  jw / 10)
G ( jw )  
jw ( jw  5)( jw  2) jw (1  jw / 5)(1  jw / 2)
• Plot the asymptotic approximations for each

term separately, for both magnitude and angle.
• Then add them together to get the system
asymptotic approximation.
• Sketch in the Bode plot curve.
168
Example 1 10( s  10)
G( s) 
s ( s  5)(s  2)
60
40
1  jw / 10
Magnitude (dB)
20
0 1
-20 1 1  jw / 5
jw
-40
1
-60 1  jw / 2
-90
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
-140
-160
-180
10
-2 -1
10 .2 .5 100 2 5
1
10 10
2
Frequency (rad/sec)
169
10 (–s  10)
Non-Minimum Phase: Example 1A G( s) 
s ( s  5)(s  2)
Non-Minimum Phase Example
60
40
Magnitude (dB)
20
-20
-40
-60
-100
–45/dec. –90/dec.
-150
Phase (deg)
-200
–135/dec.
-250
-300
–90/dec. –45/dec.
-350
10-2 10-1 100 101 102
Frequency (rad/sec)
170
Bode Plot Construction:
Example 2 G(s)  5  100
s 1 s 2  2 s  100
• Bode Form:
5 100
G ( jw )  
j w  1 j( w )2
 2 jw  100
5 1
 
1  jw / 1 1  0.2 jw / 10  (w / 10 )2
• The damping ratio for the second-order term

is z = 0.1 and the natural frequency is
10 rad./s .
171
5  100
Example 2 G(s) 
s  1 s 2  2 s  100
14
0
-20dB/dec. 14dB
Magnitude (dB)
-20
-40 -60dB/dec.
-60
-50
-45/dec.
Phase (deg)
-100
-135/dec.
-150
-200
-90/dec.
-250
-270
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
p=1 wn = 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
172
Transfer Function Identification
• Frequency response characteristics can be
obtained experimentally by applying
sinusoidal inputs of various frequencies, and
measuring the gain and phase relationships
between input and output.
• By fitting asymptotic approximations to the
frequency response characteristics obtained
from experimental measurements, an
approximate transfer function model of the
system can be obtained. 173
Transfer Function Identification:
Major Steps
1. Determine the initial slope  order of poles at
the origin.
2. Determine the final slope  difference in order
between the denominator and numerator (nm).
3. Determine the initial and final angle  confirm
the results from above or detect the presence of
a non-minimum phase system (delays or zeroes
in the RHS).
4. Determine the low frequency gain (Bode gain).
174
Major Steps
5. Detect the number and approximate location
of corner frequencies and fit asymptotes.
– possibly subtract well defined components.
– examine expected -3dB points.
– try to separate second-order terms and use the
standard responses to estimate damping.
6. Sketch the phase plot for the identified
transfer function as a check of accuracy.
175
Major Steps
7. Use the phase plot to check for non-minimum
phase terms and to calculate the time delay
value if one is present.
8. Calculate the frequency response for the
identified model and check against the
experimental data (MatLab or a few points by
hand calculation).
9. Iterate and refine the pole/zero locations and
damping of second-order terms.
176
Transfer Function Identification Example 1
40
20
Magnitude (dB) 0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-80
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
-140
-160
-180
-200
-220
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Frequency (rad/sec)
177
Identification: Example 1
• Initial slope = 20dB/dec.  a 1/jw term.
• Final slope = 40dB/dec.  (n-m) = 2 .
• Initial angle = 90 and the final angle is
180 which checks with the gain curve.
• Low frequency gain is found to be |KB/w|dB
= 35dB, where w = 0.1  KB = 5.62 .
• Through asymptotic fitting there are two
poles found at wc = 4 and 25, and one zero
at wc = 70 . 178
40
20
Magnitude (dB)
-20dB/dec.
0
-20
-40dB/dec.
-40
-60
-40dB/dec.
-80
-60dB/dec.
-100
-120
4 25 70
-80
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
-140
-90/dec.
-160
-180 -45/dec.
-200 +45/dec.
-220
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Frequency (rad/sec)
179
• The estimated transfer function in Bode
form is 5.62(1 jw / 70)
w 
G( j )
jw (1  jw / 4)(1  jw / 25)
• The final form is G ( s)  8( s  70)

s ( s  4)( s  25)
• Note: the asymptotic approximation of the

phase, based on this transfer function is
quite consistent with the data.
180
Transfer Function identification Example 2
40
Magnitude (dB)
20
-20
-40
-60
0
Phase (deg)
-50
-100
-150
-200
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/sec)
181
• Initial slope = 0dB/dec.  no pole at the origin.
• Final slope = 40dB/dec.  (n-m) = 2 .
• Initial angle = 0 and the final angle is 180
which checks with the gain curve.
• Low frequency gain is found to be
|KB|dB = 20dB  KB = 10 .
• Through asymptotic fitting a simple pole is
found at wc = 0.2, a simple zero at wc = 1.0 and a
complex pole at wn = 5.0 .
182
40
Magnitude (dB)
20 -20dB/dec.
15dB.
0
-20 -40dB/dec.
-40
-60
0.2 1.0 5.0
0
-45/dec.
Phase (deg)
-50
-90/dec.
-100
-90/dec.
-150
-200
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/sec)
183
• The peak at wn = 5.0 is  15dB which
corresponds to a damping ratio of z 0.1 .
• The estimated transfer function in Bode form is
10 (1  jw / 1)
G ( jw ) 
(1  jw / 0.2)(1  0.2 jw / 5  w 2 /25)
• The final form is

50( s  1)
G( s) 
( s  0.2)( s 2  s  25)
184
Delay Example
20
10
Magnitude (dB)
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-100
Phase (deg)
-200
-300
-400
10-2 10-1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/sec)
185
Identification: Example 2A
• The magnitude plot is the same as the previous
example.
• The angle plot continues to go more negative
and does not asymptotically approach 180 as
expected.
• This is a non-minimum phase system with a
time delay, e–s.
• How do we determine the time delay, ?
186
Identification: Example 2A
• Plot the phase of the transfer function
identified from the magnitude plot and find the
phase difference between this plot and the
phase data.
• This difference represents the e–jwterm.
• At w = 20 rad/sec, –w  –/3    0.052 s
(– 60)
• At w = 50 rad/sec, –w  – 5/6    0.052 s
(– 150)
187
50 e–0.052s ( s  1)
Transfer Function with Delay G ( s ) 
( s  0.2)( s 2  s  25)
Phase Data and Identified Bode Plot Without Delay
20
10
Magnitude (dB)
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
0
Phase (deg)
-100
-200 60
150
-300
-400
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/sec)
188
Bode Plots and Stability Analysis
• In the Nyquist analysis, it became clear that
Section II of the plot was the most critical in
determining the stability of the closed-loop
system.
• The Bode plot of the loop transfer function,
GH(jw) provides the same magnitude and angle
information as Section II of the Nyquist plot.
• Therefore, the Bode plot of GH(jw) can be used
to evaluate the stability of the closed-loop
system. 189
Bode Plots and Stability Analysis
• Consider the definitions of the gain and phase
margins in relation to the Bode plot of GH(jw) .
– Gain Margin: the additional gain required to make
| GH(jw) | = 1 when /GH(jw) = 180 . On the Bode
plot this is the distance, in dB, from the magnitude
curve up to 0dB when the angle curve crosses 180 .
– Phase Margin: the additional phase lag required to
make /GH(jw) = 180 when | GH(jw) | = 1 . On the
Bode plot this is the distance in degrees from the
phase curve to 180 when the gain curve crosses
0dB. 190
8( s  70)
Gain and Phase Margin Example G ( s) 
Magnitude (dB) 40 s ( s  4)( s  25)
20
0
-20
GM = 19dB
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-80
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
-140
-160 fm = 40
-180
-200
-220
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Frequency (rad/sec)
191
Closed-loop Frequency Response
• Assuming the closed-loop system is stable, the
frequency response of the closed-loop system will
directly give the bandwidth of the system, i.e. 3dB
down from the steady-state gain.
• This will be related to the zero crossing frequency
of the loop transfer function plot.
• Information about the overshoot of the step
response can also be obtained from the peak of
the magnitude curve in the closed-loop Bode plot.
192
Closed-Loop Bode Plot
0
3dB
Magnitude (dB)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
wB
G(s)

0
1  G ( s)
Phase (deg)
-50
-100 8( s  70)
-150 s 3  29 s 2  108s  560
-200
10-1 100 101 102
Frequency (rad/sec)
193
Eceg 402
Section 7. Auto-Stabilizer Design
Frequency Response Design
R(s) E(s) 
1 s
C(s)
+
Kc

1 s
Gp(s)
H(s)
Design Criteria and Specifications
• Design Criteria: • Frequency domain:
accuracy
– bandwidth
stability (absolute and relative)
– phase margin
speed of response
– gain margin
• Time domain: • S-plane:
– steady-state error
– damping ratio, z
– % overshoot
– natural frequency, wn
– rise time, Tr
– damping constant, s
– time to 1st peak, Tp
– settling time, Ts
195
Effects of Cascade a Controller
R(s) E(s) C(s)
Kc Gp(s)
+
H(s)
• What is the effect of

• Increase Kc to reduce
increasing Kc on the
steady-state error.
closed-loop stability?
• Increase Kc to increase
• Examine the Nyquist
the speed of response.
plot and Bode plot.
196
Effects of Cascade a Controller
• If Kc = 1, then the
• Consider the following
position error constant is
plant characteristic.
Kp = 10 and the steady-
50 state error for a step
G p (s) 
( s  0.2)( s 2  5s  25) input is
with 1
ess   100%  9.1%
H (s)  1 1 K p
• Increasing Kc to 3 will
reduce the steady-state
error to 3.2%
197
Effects of Increasing Kc
Bode Diagrams
• For Kc = 3, the gain curve
20 is shifted up by about
Magnitude (dB)
-20 Kc=3 10dB, shifting the zero-

-40 crossing to the right and
-60
-80
increasing the bandwidth.
0
• For Kc = 1, the phase
-50 margin is about 55, but
Phase (deg)
-100
-150 fm
with Kc = 3, the phase
-180
-200 margin becomes -10 ,
-250
-2 -1 0 1 2
resulting in an unstable
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec) closed-loop system.
198
Effects of Increasing Kc
Nyquist Diagrams
• On the Nyquist plot,
1.5
1
increasing the gain Kc from 1
Imaginary Axis
0.5
Kc = 3 to 3 results in encirclements of
0 the –1 point and the system
–1
-0.5 becomes unstable. Note with
-1 Kc = 1, the gain margin is
-1.5
about 2.5 or about 8 dB.
-1.5 -1 -0.5
Real Axis
How can the loop characteristics be changed to allow

a gain of Kc = 3 and keep the system stable?
199
Reshaping the Loop Frequency
Characteristics
Nyquist Diagrams • To achieve a stable system
1.5
while keeping Kc = 3, phase
|GH|=1
1 advance may be added to
Imaginary Axis
0.5
Kc = 3 the system in the frequency
0
–1
range where |GH(jw)| = 1.
-0.5 fm
-1
• This may be done through
-1.5 cascade phase-lead
-1.5 -1 -0.5 compensation.
Real Axis
200
Phase-Lead Compensation
fm = 16 at wc = 9.9 rad/s
Gm=8.1303 dB (at 15.324 rad/sec)
Pm=15.772 deg. (at 9.9897 rad/sec)
20
• Add phase-lead
compensation to the
Magnitude (dB)
0
-20
-40 controller.
1  0 .6 s
Gc ( s )  3
-60
1  0.017 s
-80
-100
50
compensator • This introduces phase
0 advance of 70 and a
Phase (deg)
-50
-100
uncompensated
gain increase of 15 dB
-150
-200
compensated at the new zero-crossing
-250
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
frequency, wc = 9.9
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec) rad/s .

201
Phase-Lag Compensation
fm = 29 at wc = 3.8 rad/s
Gm=3.5624 dB (at 4.9746 rad/sec)
Pm=28.6 deg. (at 3.7882 rad/sec)
• Add phase-lag
20
uncompensated
compensation to the
Magnitude (dB)
0
compensator
-20 controller.
-40
1  1.8s
-60 
Gc ( s ) 3
-80
compensated 1  3.3s
0 • This introduces gain
-50 reduction at and a
Phase (deg)
-100
-150
small phase lag at the
-200 new zero-crossing
-250
-2 -1 0 1 2
frequency, wc = 3.8
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec) rad/s .

202
Phase-Lead Compensator
Characteristics
• Time constant form. • Pole-zero form.
1 1   s sz
Gc ( s)  K c Gc ( s )  K c
 1  s s p
1 1
z , p
amp. passive
 
gain network where
where  > 1 Note: | z | < | p |
203
Maximum Phase Advance, m
w w
• The phase lead is   tan 1
 tan 1
z p
• Find the maximum.
d 1 1 1 1 z ( p 2  w 2 )  p( z 2  w 2 )
   0
dw w  z
2
w  p
2
( z  w )( p  w )
2 2 2 2
1   1   
z  p
• Factoring the numerator
( z p)( m  pz )  0  w m 
 w Design
2
pz
equation
• The maximum phase advance is
p z
 m  tan 1  tan 1
z p 204
Maximum Phase Advance, m
p  1/   1
• Since,  , tan  m  
z 2 2 
 1
then sin  m  Design equation
 1
Note: In practice, m is less than 70 to 80 .

• The gain increase at w m  pz with respect to
the low frequency gain is  or 1  dB
2
205
Bode Plot (Kc = 1)
p
• Note :  
Lead Compensator z
0
• The maximum phase
Magnitude (dB)
-5
-10
advance occurs at
-15 ½ |  |dB wm = zp.
m
z p • The gain at wm is
40 ½ |  |dB above the low-
Phase (deg)
20
frequency gain, | 1/ |dB.
0
• Maximum phase advance is
10-2 10-1
zp
101 102
defined by  1
Frequency (rad/sec) sin  m 
206  1
Implementation
R2
Passive circuit: (1  s R1C1 )
R  R2
C1 Eo ( s )  1
Ei ( s )
R1R2C1

1 s
R1  R2
then
ei R1
R2 eo
Eo ( s ) 
1 1 s 
 1 s 
Ei ( s )
R2 where
Eo ( s )  Ei ( s )
R1 R1  R2
R2 
1  s R 1C1   RRC 1 2 1
,  
R1  R2 R2
207
Implementation
• The full controller • The relationship to the
includes the passive pole-zero form is
circuit and an amplifier.
1 1   s
  p1 ,   1
,   p
Gc ( s )  K c z z
 1  s • The maximum phase
• The low frequency gain is advance occurs at
1
Kc w m  pz  1
  
208
Bode Plot Design of Phase-Lead
1 1   s
Compensators G (s)  K  1   s
c c
• Three parameters to be chosen in the design.

– Kc : the compensator amplifier gain, chosen to
meet the required low-frequency gain, or
bandwidth requirements.
–  : the time constant of the compensator, chosen
to place the phase advance at the desired
frequency.
–  : the spread of the pole and zero of the
compensator, defining the maximum phase
advance. 209
Compensators: Design Steps
1. Loop gain requirement:
– Determine the loop gain required to meet the
steady-state error specifications.
2. Bode plot:
– Plot the loop transfer function including the
required gain increase from step 1.
3. Required phase advance: (calculate )
– Determine the required m to meet the phase
margin specification at the predicted zero-
crossing frequency. 210
 1
– Calculate  from, sin  m  .
 1
– Check the new zero-crossing frequency based on
the gain increase of ½|  |dB to see if the phase
margin will be met with the phase advance, m .
Some iteration may be required.
wc , fm m  ½|  |dB
Bode specs.
sin  m 
 1 h.f. gain
plot  1 increase
211
4. Required  :
– Select  such that, w m  1
 
is at the new
predicted zero-crossing frequency.
5. Required Kc :
– Select Kc to give the required gain increase in
the loop transfer function. Remember, the
compensator low-frequency gain is Kc/.
6.Implement: G (s)  K 1 1   s
c c
 1  s
212
Phase-Lead Design Example 1
• Steady-state error:
• The plant
1 1
1 E ( s)  R( s ) 
G p ( s)  1  KGp (s) sK
s(s  2) 
2
s
s2
1
• Specifications: 
ess lim s E( s)  < 0.05
s0 K /2
– steady-state error <5%
for a ramp input.  K > 40
– Phase margin >45° • Draw the Bode plot of
40
G p ( s) 
s(s  2)
213
Phase-Lead Design Example
• Initial fm = 18° , so
20
choose m = 45° – 18°
Magnitude (dB)
0 4.8dB
+ 3° = 30° .
-20 • Then sin(30o )  0.50
 1
-40
    3.0
8.5  1
-120
• The gain increase is
½|  |dB =4.8 dB .
-135
Phase (deg)
-140
27°
-160 • The new predicted
-180
18° 13° wc = 8.5 rad/s and
100 101
Frequency (rad/sec)
102
fm(uncomp) = 13°
214
• Second iteration: • Calculate 
1
choose m = 45° – 13° w m  w c  8 .7 
+ 3° = 35° .
 
  1
 0.06
• Then sin(35o )  0.57 8.7 3.7
 1 • Calculate the gain Kc
    3.7
 1 1
Kc  40  K c  40  148
• The gain increase is 
½|  |dB =5.7 dB . • The final compenstor
• The new predicted 1 1  0.22s
wc = 8.7 rad/s and Gc ( s )  148
3.7 1  0.06s
fm(uncomp) = 12° amplifier
OK 215
Final Bode Plot
Phase-Lead Compensation Design
40
Magnitude (dB)
20
-20
-40
8.7rad/s
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
-140
compensated
uncompensated 47°
-160
-180
10--1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/sec)
216
Closed-Loop Step Response
1.6
compensated
1.4
uncompensated, K=40
1.2
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
uncompensated, K=1
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (sec.)
217
Phase-Lag Compensator
Characteristics
• Time constant form. • Pole-zero form.
1  s Kc s  z
Gc ( s)  Kc Gc ( s ) 
1   ' s ' s  p
amp. passive 1 , 1
z 
gain network where  p
'
where ’ > 1 Note: | p | < | z |
218
Characteristics
• Consider the phase lag, one decade above
the zero of the compensator, w = 10 z.
 lag  tan
10 z
1
 tan 1 10 z ’ lag
p z 2 2.8
 tan 1 10 '  tan 1 10
5 4.5
 tan 1 10 '  84.3o
50 5.6
219
Bode Plot
Lag Compensator z
0

• Note : ' 
p
Magnitude (dB)
• The phase lag at one

-5
-10 |1/ |dB

-15 zp decade above the zero
p z is about 5 .
0 5
-10
• The high-frequency
Phase (deg)
-20
-30 gain is reduced by

-40
-50
| 1/ |dB
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
220
Implementation
Passive circuit: 1  R2C1 s
Eo (s )  Ei (s )
1  ( R1  R2 )C1 s
R1
ei R2 then
eo
C1
 1  s
1   ' s
Eo ( s ) Ei ( s )
1
R2  where
 s C1
Eo ( s ) Ei ( s )  R2
R1  R2 
1  RC 2 1 , '
R1
s C1 R2
221
Bode Plot Design of Phase-Lag
1  s
Compensators G (s)  K
1   ' s
c c
• Three parameters to be chosen in the design.

– Kc : the compensator amplifier gain, chosen to
meet the required low-frequency gain
requirements.
–  : the time constant of the compensator, chosen
to place the zero of the compensator, one
decade below the new zero-crossing frequency.
–  : the required high frequency gain reduction.
222
– Determine the loop gain required to meet the steady-
state error specifications.
2. Bode plot:
– Plot the loop transfer function including the required
gain increase from step 1.
3. Required zero-crossing frequency: (calculate )
– Find the frequency, wc where the specified phase
margin + 5 would be met, if it were the zero-
crossing frequency. 223
– Determine the gain reduction required to make wc
the zero-crossing frequency.
– Calculate  from the required gain reduction =
|  |dB .
4. Required  :
– Select  such that the zero, 1/ is one decade
below the new zero-crossing frequency.
1 w 'c

 10
224
5. Required Kc :
– Select Kc to give the required low-frequency
gain increase.
6.Implement:
1  s
Gc (s)  Kc
1   ' s
225
Phase-Lag Design Example 1
• The plant • Steady-state error:
1 1 1
G p ( s)  E ( s)  R( s ) 
s(s  2) 1  KGp (s) s 2

sK
s2
ess lim s E( s) 
1
< 0.05
s0
– steady-state error <5% K /2
– Phase margin >45°
• Draw the Bode plot of
• The first part of the 40
G p ( s) 
s(s  2)
design is the same as
the phase-lead design. 226
• Initial fm = 18° at wc =
Phase-Lag Design Example
60
6.5 rad/s.
Magnitude (dB)
• Frequency at which fm
40
20
20dB = 45° + 5° = 50° (where
0
1.7 6.5
the phase plot = –130°)
-100
wc = 1.7 rad/s
Phase (deg)
-120 • The required high

-140
frequency gain
-160
reduction is |  |dB =
10--2 10--1 10 0
Frequency (rad/sec)
10 1
20dB,   10.
227
• Calculate  • The final compensator
Set the compensator 1  5.88s
Gc ( s )  40
zero at one decade 1  58.8s
below wc .
w c 1 1.7
   0.17
10  10
5.88
228
Final Bode Plot
Phase-Lag Design Example
60
uncompensated
Magnitude (dB)
40
20
0
compensated 20dB
-20
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
-135
-140
-160
10--2 10--1 10 0 10 1
Frequency (rad/sec)
229
Lead and Lag Design Step Response
1.6 uncompensated, K=40
1.4 lead compensated
1.2 lag compensated
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
uncompensated, K=1
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (sec.)
230
Characteristics of Lead and
Lag Compensators
Lead Compensator Lag Compensator
– uses phase advance at – uses gain reduction to
the zero-crossing shift the zero-crossing
to the left
– increases high
frequency gain and – introduces phase lag at
shifts wc to the right frequencies below wc
– increases bandwidth – reduces bandwidth
– limited amount of – very large amount of
compensation possible compensation possible
231
Characteristics of Lead-Lag
Compensators G (s)  K 1   s 1   s '
c c
1  s 1   
' '
s
Lead-Lag Compensator Characteristics
0 lead lag
Magnitude (dB)
-5 1
'
1  1  = 0.4472   22.36
-10
dB
 ' dB 2 dB
=5  = 8
-15
1 1 1 1
 
 = 2.236   178.9
40

' '
 '
  m m = 40°
Phase (deg)
wm =  1
20
0
1 =1
-20
 
-40 For a constrained
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 implementation,  = 
Frequency (rad/sec)
232
Lead-Lag Compensator
Implementation ( = ´)
C1 (constrained)
1
R1 R2 
s C2
ei
R2
eo Eo ( s )  Ei ( s )
R1
C2  R2  1
1  s R1C1 s C2
(1  R1C1s )(1  R2C2 s )

Eo ( s )  2 Ei ( s )
1  ( R1C1  R2C2  R1C2 ) s  R1C1R2C2 s
(1   s )(1   ' s )

(1   s )(1   
' ' where . . .
s)
233
Lead-Lag Compensator
Implementation
where • These three equations are
  R1C1 used to determine the
'  R C circuit components from
the specified , , and  .
2 2
   '  R C
1 1
 R2C2
 • An unconstrained lead-lag
 R1C1  R2C2  R1C2 network,   ´ can be
implemented as separate
• This results in a lead and lag networks
constrained lead-lag buffered by an op-amp.
network,  = ´ .
234
Bode Plot Design of Lead-Lag
Compensators G (s)  K 1   s 1   s '
c c
1  s 1   
' '
s
• Five parameters to be chosen in the design.

– Kc : amplifier gain, low-frequency gain requirements.
–  : the desired phase advance, m .
–  : lead time constant, to place m at the design
zero- crossing frequency, wc´ .
–  : the required high frequency gain reduction.
–  : lag time constant to place the lag zero, one
decade below wc´ .
235
– Determine the loop gain required to meet the steady-
state error specifications.
2. Bode plot:
– Plot the loop transfer function including the required
gain increase from step 1.
3. Desired Phase Advance (calculate )
– Select a desirable amount of phase advance m and
calculate the corresponding  .
236
4. Required Gain Reduction (calculate  )
– Determine the frequency, wc where the design
phase margin would be achieved, accounting for the
phase advance, m and the 5° of the tail of the lag.
fm(uncomp) fm(spec) – m + 5°
– Determine the gain reduction required to make wc
the zero-crossing frequency and calculate  .
| gain reduction |dB = |1/  |dB + ½|  |dB
237
5. Required  and  :
– Select  to place the m at wc ;
1
wc =
 
– Select  such that the zero, 1/ is one
decade below wc ; 1 w '
 c
6. Required Kc : ' 10
– Select Kc to give the required low-frequency
gain increase.
  s 1   ' s
7.Implement: Gc ( s)  K c
1
1  s 1   
' '
s
238
Compensators: ( = ´ )
• For the constrained design ( = ´ ) steps 3
and 4 may require some iteration similar to
the lead design.
• In this case the gain reduction is
| 1/ |dB + ½| |dB = – ½| |dB
wc´ , fm m  –½|  |dB

Bode
specs.
sin  m 
 1 gain
plot
+ 5°  1 reduction
239
Lead-Lag Design Example 1
1 1 1
G p ( s)  E ( s)  R( s ) 
s(s  2) 1  KGp (s) s 2

sK
s2
ess lim s E( s) 
1
< 0.05
s0
– steady-state error <5% K /2
• The first part of the 40
G p ( s) 
s(s  2)
design is the same as
the phase-lead design. 240
Lead-Lag Design (unconstrained)
• Choose m = 20° , then
 = 2.0, ½|  |dB = 3dB.
60
Magnitude (dB)
40
20
• fm(uncomp) 
0
9 dB 45° – 20° + 5° = 30°
wc = 3.5 rad/s
-100
• Gain reduction = -9dB
Phase (deg)
-120
= | 1/ |dB+½|  |dB
-140
-150
-160
\ | 1/ |dB = -12dB
10-2 10-1 100 3.5 101 and  4
Frequency (rad/sec)
241
• Lead time constant • Controller gain
1
wc = 3.5 =
 2
Kc = 40
 = 0.20
• Final Controller
• Lag time constant
1 wc' 1  0.4 s 1  2.86 s
 = 0.35 Gc ( s )  40
' 10 1  0.2 s 1 11.44 s
 2.86
242
m = 45 wc´ = 3.5 rad/s
60
uncompensated
Magnitude (dB)
40
20
0 compensated
-20
-40
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
-135
-140
-160
-180
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 3.5 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/sec)
243
Constrained ( = ´ )
Lead-Lag Design (unconstrained)
• For m = 20° ,  = 2.0
60
 4
Magnitude (dB)
• Choose m = 27° , then

40
20
9 dB
 = 2.7   2.7
0
• The gain reduction is
-100 – ½|  |dB = – 4.3 dB
Phase (deg)
-120 • The new zero-crossing

-140
-150
is wc = 4.7 rad/s
-160
• The phase margin is 25°
10-2 10-1 100 3.5 101
Frequency (rad/sec) + 27° – 5° = 47°
244
1
wc = 4.7 =
 2.7
Kc = 40
 = 0.129
1 wc' 1  0. 350 s 1  2.13 s
 = 0.47 Gc ( s )  40
' 10 1  0.129 s 1  5.75 s
 2.13
245
Lead-Lag Constrained Design
60
Magnitude (dB)
40
20
0
-20
-40
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
compensated -133
-140
-160 uncompensated
-180
10-2 10-1 100 4.7 101 102
Frequency (rad/sec)
246
Closed-Loop Step Responses
Step Response
1.2
0.8 ___ lead compensator

Amplitude
___ lag compensator

0.6
___ lead-lag compensator
0.4
(constrained)
___ lead-lag compensator
0.2 (unconstrained)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (sec.)
247
Compensator Design Example 2
50
G p (s)  E ( s) 
1
R(s) 
1
( s  0.2)( s 2  5s  25) 1  KGp (s) s sKGp (s)
 1 
• Specifications: ess  lim s E( s ) 0.02

s 0 1 10K
– steady-state error <2%
for a step input. K  4.9
245
G p (s) 
( s  0.2)( s 2  5s  25)
248
Compensator Design Example 2
Bode Diagram for Example 2 • fm(uncomp) = – 27° at
wc = 6.7 rad/s
20
15
Magnitude (dB)
• A lead compensator
10
5 13dB
0
-5
would need to
-10 provide > 87° phase
-100
advance.
-115
Phase (deg)
-120
-140 • A lag compenstor
-160
-180
fm = – 27°
needs to introduce a
-200
-220 high frequency gain
100 2.3 6.7 101 reduction of 13dB .
Frequency (rad/sec)
249
Lag Compensator Design
Example 2
• The gain reduction at • The time constant is
wc´ = 2.3 rad/s to make 1/´ = wc´/10 = 0.23
this the zero crossing is
´ = 4.35
–13dB. The phase at
this frequency is –115°. • The gain is
(–180° + 60° + 5°) Kc = 4.9
• |1/´|dB = –13dB • The final controller is
´ = 4.6 1  4.35 s
Gc ( s )  4.9
1  20 . 0 s
250
Lag Compensator Design
Example 2
Lag Design for Example 2
Magnitude (dB) 20
10
13dB
0
-10
-20
2.3
-100
-120
Phase (deg)
-140
fm = – 60°
-160
-180
-200
-220
-240
10 0 101
Frequency (rad/sec)
251
Lead-Lag Compensator Design
Example 2
Bode Diagram for Example 2 • Choose m = 65° , then
 = 20.3, and
20
15
Magnitude (dB)
10
5
½|  |dB = 13.1dB.
5.5dB
0
-5
• fm(uncomp) 
-10 60° – 65° + 5° = 0°
-100
-115
wc = 5.1 rad/s
Phase (deg)
-120
-140
-160
• Gain reduction = – 5.5dB
-180
-200
fm = – 27° = | 1/ |dB + ½|  |dB
-220
\ | 1/ |dB = – 18.6dB
100 2.3 5.1 6.7 101
Frequency (rad/sec) and  8.5 252
Example 2
1
wc = 5.1 =
 20.3
Kc = 4.9
 = 0.0435
1 wc' 1  0.883 s 1  1.96 s
 = 0.51 Gc ( s )  4.9
' 10 1  0.0435 s 1 16.66 s
 1.96
253
Example 2
Lead-Lag Design for Example 2
20
15 uncompensated
Magnitude (dB)
10
5 compensated
0
-5
-10
5.1
-80
-100
Phase (deg)
-120
-140
fm = 60°
-160
-180
-200
-220
-240 0 1
10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
254
Design Comparison
Example 2
Bode Diagrams for Example 2
20
Magnitude (dB)
0
-20 uncompensated
-40
lead-lag design
-60
-80
lag design
2.3 5.1 6.5
0
-50
Phase (deg)
-100
-120
-150
-200
-250
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/sec)
255
Design Comparison
Example 2
Step Responses for Example 2
0.8
___ uncompensated
Amplitude
0.6
___ lead-lag design
___ lag design
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec.)
256
Lead-Lead Compensation Design
• One of the limitations of lead compensators
is that the phase advance is limited to about
70 - 80°.
• To overcome this limit, consider cascading
two lead compensators.
• The design follows as with a single lead
except the phase advance is doubled, to 2m
and the gain increase at the new zero
crossing is also doubled, to |  |dB .
257
Lead-Lead Design for Example 2
• Initial fm = – 27° , so
20
0 choose 2m = 60° + 27°

Magnitude (dB)
-20 + 23° = 110° , m = 55°

• Then  = 10
-40
-60
14 • The gain increase is

-50
|  |dB = 20 dB .
-100
• The new predicted
Phase (deg)
wc´ = 14 rad/s and

-150
fm(uncomp) = – 69°
-200
-250 -249
10 0 101 10 2 fm= – 69°+110° = 41 °

Frequency (rad/sec)
258
• Second iteration: • Calculate 
1
choose 2m = 60° + 69° w m  w c  20 
+ 11° = 140° , m = 70°
 
  1
 0.00884
• Then  = 32 20 32
• The gain increase is • Calculate the gain Kc
|  |dB =30 dB . K c2
1
 4.9  K c 4.9   70.8
2
• The new predicted • The final compenstor
wc´ = 20 rad/s and
fm(uncomp) = –75°  
2
 1 1 0.283 s 

Gc ( s) 70.8
fm= – 75°+140° = 65 °  32 1 0.00884 s 
OK Two lead networks in series.

259
20
lead-lead compensated
0
Magnitude (dB)
uncompensated
-20
-40
-60
-50
-100
-115
fm = 65°
Phase (deg)
-150
-200
-250
10 0 101 20 10 2
Frequency (rad/sec)
260
Closed-loop System
Step Response Comparison
0.8
Amplitude
0.6 ___ lag design

___ lead-lag design
0.4
___ lead-lead design
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (sec.)
261
PID Control Design In The
Frequency Domain
• Treat the PD controller as a special case of a

lead compensator, the PI as a special case of
the lag compensator and the PID controller
as a special case of the lead-lag
compensator.
• Design with slightly modified frequency
response procedures and then fine tune on-
line.
262
PD Frequency Domain Design
• PD Controller • The low frequency
gain is Kp .
Gc ( s )  K p  K d s
• The gain and phase
Kd
 K p (1  s) angle at frequency, w
Kp
 Kp (1   s ) where  K
d Gc ( j w)  Kp (1  j  w)
Kp
• This is a lead Gc ( j w)  Kp 1  2w 2
Gc ( j ) tan ( w)
compensator with the
w  1
pole at w   .
263
PD Controller Reference Plot : Kd = 1 , Kp = 1
40 __ ideal
• PD controller with a
high frequency cut-off.
Magnitude (dB)
30 __ 1/d two decades above

__ 1/d one decade above Kd s
Gc ( s )  Kp 

20
1 d s
K  K sK s
10
|Kp|dB 0
 p p d d
1  s
1/ 1/d 1/d
80 d
1 s
Phase (deg)
60
K
1  s
40 p
d
20
where   ( 
K d
10
-1
10 0 101 102 d )
Frequency (rad/sec) Kp
264
• The design process is • Check the new zero
similar to the lead crossing frequency, wc
compensator design. and the corresponding
phase margin (iterate).
• Choose the phase
advance  and determine • Determine  from
w from   tan1 ( w)  tan ( wc )
1

• Determine the gain • Determine Kp from the
increase from low frequency gain
Gc ( j w)  Kp 1  2w 2
requirements.
• 1/d = 100 1/ 265
PI Frequency Domain Design
• PI Controller Kp
(1  s) • Note that the PI
  Ki  Ki compensator introduces
Gc ( s ) K p Ki
s s
(1 i s )
a pole at the origin
Ki which increases the
s
system type by 1.
• This is a lag
compensator with the • The high frequency
pole at w = 0 and the gain  Kp .
zero at   Kp
i
Ki
266
PI Frequency Domain Design
40
PI Controller : Ki = 1 , Kp = 1
• The design is similar to
the lag compensator.
Magnitude (dB)
30
20 • Select Kp to give the

10
|Kp|dB
required wc´ that will
0
1/i satisfy the fm + 5° .
-20 • Select Ki such that the
Phase (deg)
-40 zero is one decade

-60
below wc´ .
wc
-80
1 K 


i
10-2 10-1 100 101
Frequency (rad/sec)
i Kp 10
267
PID Frequency Domain Design
• PID Controller
Ki K s
Gc ( s )  K p   d
s 1 d s 

Kp s  Kp  s2  Ki  K i s  Kd s2

d d
s (1  d s )
K (1  ( K K   ) s  1 K  ( K   K ) s ) 2
 i p i d i p d d
s (1  s ) d
K (1  s )(1  s )
 where,    ( K   K ) K
s (1  s )
i 1 2 i
1 2 p d d
d    K K  1 2 p i d
268
PID Controller: 1 =10 , 2 = 1 , Ki = 1 • The PID controller is
60
similar to a lead-lag
Magnitude (dB)
50
40 compensator, with
30 the lag pole at zero
1 / 2 w2
|Kp|dB and the lead pole at
1 / 1
20
50
1/d .
• w2 represents a
Phase (deg)
-50
frequency relative to
1/2 for a phase
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1
Frequency (rad/sec) advance of 70° .
269
• For the PID design, first • Select 1/d two decades
choose a phase advance  above 1/2 .
and calculate w2from • Plot the compensated
  tan (2 w)
1
system with Ki = 1 and
• Then determine the determine the gain
frequency, wc´ where reduction required to
fm(uncomp) fm(spec) –  + 5 .
° make wc
´ the zero
crossing frequency.
• Calculate 2 from wc and  .
´
• Select 1/1 one decade

below 1/2 . 270
PID Frequency Domain Design:
Example 2
Bode Diagram for Example 2
• Choose  = 70° . From
20 the PID characteristics,
15
this occurs at
Magnitude (dB)
10
w 2 = tan(70 °) = 2.75 .
5
0
-5
-10 • Find the frequency
-100
where, fm(uncomp) 
60° – 70° + 5° = – 5°
Phase (deg)
-120
-140
-160
-180 -185
wc = 5.2 rad/s
• Find 2 from wc´ 2 =
-200
-220
5.2
2 = 0.529
100 101
Frequency (rad/sec) 2.75  271
Example 2
• Choose 1/1 one • Plot the systems with
decade below 1/2 . the compensator
1/1 = 1/102 Gc ( s)  Ki
(1  5.29s )(1  0.529s)
1 = 5.29 . s (1  0.00529s )
Choose 1/d two

where Ki = 1 .
•
decades above 1/2 .
1/d = 100/2
d = 0.00529 .
272
Example 2
PID Compensated System • Check the zero crossing
compensated, Ki = 1
30 frequency for the phase
Magnitude (dB)
20 uncompensated
28.5dB
margin of 60°. wc = 5.2
10
0
rad/s
-10
compensated, Ki = 0.0376
• Find the required gain
reduction to make this
the zero crossing
Phase (deg)
-100
-120
-150 frequency. 28.5dB
-200 • Set Ki = the gain
10 0 5.2 101
reduction. Ki = 0.0376
Frequency (rad/sec)
273
Step Responses for PID and Lead-Lag
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
__ PID
Amplitude
0.6
0.5
__ Lead-Lag
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (sec.)
274
Eceg 402
Section 8.
Root Locus Analysis jw
p2
1  KGH ( s )  0 X
z1 s
1 O Xp
GH ( s )   –4 1
K
p3X
Copyright © 005 by G.michael Te-ame. All rights reserved

Root Locus Analysis
• The roots of the closed-loop characteristic equation
define the system characteristic responses.
• Their location in the complex s-plane lead to
prediction of the characteristics of the time domain
responses in terms of:
– damping ratio, z
second-order modes
– natural frequency, wn
– damping constant, s  first-order modes
• Consider how these roots change as the loop gain is
varied from 0 to  .
276
Root Locus Example
R(s) E(s) K C(s)
+ s ( s  2)
–
• The closed-loop • The characteristic equation

transfer function is is
C (s) K s  2s  K  0
2

R( s) s( s  2)  K • Consider the characteristic
roots as K = 0   .
277
Root Locus Example
s  1  1  K loci of closed-loop roots
• For K = 0 the closed-loop jw
K
poles are at the open-loop
poles.
• For 0 < K < 1 the closed-loop K=1
s
poles are on the real axis. X
X
• For K > 1 the closed-loop –2
K=0
poles are complex, with a real
value of –1 and an imaginary
value increasing with gain K .
278
Root Locus Example:
Step Responses
Step Responses
K jw
1.6 K = 50.0
1.4 K = 15.0
1.2
K = 2.0
Amplitude
1 K=1
0.8
K = 1.0 s
0.6
X X
K = 0.5 –2
0.4
K=0
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec.)
279
Root Locus Example:
Some Observations
• This is a second-order system and there two loci.
• The root loci start at the open-loop poles.
• The root loci tend towards the open-loop zeros at
infinity as K   . (Note: the number of zeros is
equal to the number of poles, when the zeros at
infinity are included.)
• The relationship between the characteristic
responses and the increasing gain is seen through
the root loci.
280
The General Root Locus Method
• Consider the general • The characteristic
system equation is
R(s) C(s)
G(s) 1  GH ( s)  0
+ or
–
GH ( s)  1
H(s)
where or
GH ( s)  1
C (s) G ( s)
 GH ( s)  (2k  1)
R ( s ) 1  GH ( s )
k  0,  1, 2 
281
• All values of s which satisfy
GH ( s)  1 ; GH ( s)  (2k  1) ; k  0,  1, 2 
are roots of the closed-loop characteristic
equation.
• Consider the following general form
K ( s  z1 )( s  z2 ) ( s  zm )
GH ( s ) 
( s  p1 )( s  p2 ) ( s  pn )
Note : pi may be zero.
282
• Then
m
K sz i
GH ( s )  n
i 1 1
s p i
i 1
m n
GH ( s )   ( s  zi )  ( s  pi )  (2k  1)
i 1 i 1
k  0,  1,  2 
283
Root Locus Method:
Geometric Interpretation
p3 jw
• Consider the example
-p3 X B s1
K ( s  z1 )
GH ( s ) 
s ( s  p2 )( s  p3 ) A C
z1 p1 s
• Then the values of s = s1
O X
which satisfy -z1 D -p1
K s  z1
1 p2
s s  p2 s  p3 -p2 X
( s  z1 )  (s  ( s  p2 )  ( s  p3 ))  (2k  1)
are on the loci and are roots of the characteristic equation.
284
Root Locus Method:
Geometric Interpretation
p3 jw
• In terms of the vectors,
-p3 X B s1
the condition for s = s1
to be on the root loci are C
A
K A z1 p1 s
 1 or A  1 O X
BCD BCD K -z1 D -p1
and
p2
 z1  ( p1   p 2   p 3 )  (2k  1) -p2 X
k  0,  1,  2, 
285
Root Locus Method
• When plotting the loci • The magnitude condition
of the roots as may then be used to
K = 0  , the determine the gain K
magnitude condition is corresponding to that
always satisfied. value s1 .
• Therefore, a value of • How can we easily
s = s1 that satisfies the determine if the angle
angle condition, is a condition is satisfied?
point of the root loci.
286
Root Locus Construction Rules
1. The loci start (K = 0) • For our example system
at the poles of the s  z1 1
GH ( s)  
open-loop system. s s  p2 s  p3 K
There are n loci .
• Therefore, as K  0 ,
2. The loci terminate GH(s)   , the poles of
(K  ) at the zeroes the loop transfer function.
of the open-loop
system (include zeroes • As K   , GH(s)  0 ,
at infinity). the zeroes of the loop
transfer function.
287
3. The root loci are • The roots with imaginary
symmetrical about the parts always occur in
real axis. conjugate complex pairs.
4. As K   the loci • When the loci approach
approach asymptotes. infinity, the angles from
There are q = n – m all the poles and zeroes
asymptotes and they are equal. The angle
intersect the real axis at condition then is
angles defined by m – n = (2k + 1)
(2k  1)
, k  0,  1,  2, 
q 288
5. The asymptotes
intersection point on the
real is defined by
• The angles from poles
sa   poles of GH (s)   zeroes of GH (s) and zeroes to the left
q of s1 are zero. The
6. Real axis sections of the angles from poles and
root loci exist only where zeroes to the right are
there is an odd number of – .An odd number
poles and zeroes to the are required to satisfy
right. the angle condition.
289
Example
• Consider our example jw asymptote
with z1 = 4 , p12 = 1  2j
K ( s  4) real axis X 2j
GH ( s )  locus
s ( s  1  2 j )( s  1  2 j ) s
• Asymptotes: O X
–4 –2 –1 +1
(2k  1)   
angles =
3 1 2 X –2j
sa 
 0  (1  2 j )  (1  2 j ) (4)
 1
3 1
290
7. The angles of departure, • The angle of arrival at
d from poles and the zero, -z1 is obtained
arrival, a to zeroes may from
m
be found by applying az1   ( -z1  zi ) 
the angle condition to a i 2
n
point very near the pole
or zero.  (-z  p )  (2k  1)
1 i
i 1
291
Example
jw
p2
• Departure angle from p2 .
z1 = tan-1(2/3) = 33.7° -p2
X 2j
p1 = tan-1(–2/1) = 116.6°
-z1 33.7°
116.6° s
p3 = 90° O X -p
–4 –2 1 +1
• Then 90°
33.7° – (90° + 116.6° + p2 ) = 180° -pX

3
–2j
p2 = – 352.9° = + 7.1°

292
8. The imaginary axis
• Marginal stability
crossing is obtained by
refers to the point
applying the Routh-
where the roots of the
Hurwitz criterion and
closed-loop system are
checking for the gain that
on the stability
results in marginal
boundary, i.e. the
stability. The imaginary
imaginary axis.
components are found
from the solution of the
resulting auxiliary
equation. 293
Example
• Imaginary axis crossing:
• For marginal stability,
Characteristic equation K = 5 and the
s ( s  1  2 j )( s  1  2 j )  K ( s  4)  0 auxiliary equation is
s 3  2 s 2  (5  K ) s  4 K  0
2 s 2  20  0
Routh table
s   10 j   3.16 j
s3 1 5+K 0
• Therefore, the
s2 2 4K 0 imaginary axis
s 5–K 0 0 intersection is  3.16 j
s0 4K 0
294
Example
• Summary: jw
7.1°
There are three root loci. -p2 3.16 j
One on the real axis from X 2j
-p1 to -z1 , and a pair of loci
-z1 s
from -p2 and -p3 to zeroes O X -p
at infinity along the –4 –2 1 +1
asymptotes. The departure

angle from these poles is  -pX
3
–2j
7.1° and an imaginary axis

crossing at s = 3.16j .
295
Some examples
• Breakaway Points:
When two or more
x x o o
loci meet, they will
breakaway from this
point at particular x x
angles. The point is
known as a breakaway x x x
45°
x
point. It corresponds
to multiple roots. x x
296
9. The angle of breakaway • Note: K   GH ( s )1
 2 d GH ( s )
is 180°/k where k is the dK  
number of converging GH ( s) 0
ds ds
loci. • Also,
The location of the
d GH ( s)  d N ( s) D( s)
breakaway point is ds ds
found from N ( s) N ( s) D( s)
  0
d GH ( s) 
2
D( s ) D( s )
dK 
0 or 0
ds ds D( s) N ( s)  N ( s) D( s)  0
297
Root Locus Plot:
Breakaway Point Example
• Consider the following loop jw
transfer function. asymptotes
K
GH ( s)  2j
s( s  3) 2
• Real axis loci exist for the
60° s
XX X
full negative axis. –4 –2 +1
• Asymptotes:
–2j
angles = (2k+1)= /3 , , 5/3
3
( 3  3  0 )  ( 0 )
sa   2
3 298
Root Locus Plot:
Breakaway Point Example
• Determine the breakaway jw
points from
2j
d  K  d  K 
 2
  3
ds  s ( s  3)  ds  s  6 s 2  9 s  s
 K (3s 2  12 s  9) XX X
 0 –4 –2 +1
( s  6s  9s)
3 2 2
then –2j
s 2  4 s  3  ( s  1)( s  3)  0
s  1 ,  3
299
10. For a point on the • Alternately, K may be
root locus, s =s1 determined graphically
calculate the gain, K from the root locus plot
from
B s jw
s1  p1 s1  p2 
X 1
K 
s1  z 1 s1  z 2  A C
O X
s
D
BCD
K 
X A
300
Summary of Root Locus Plot
Construction
• Plot the poles and zeros of the open-loop system.
• Find the section of the loci on the real axis (odd
number of poles an zeroes to the right).
• Determine the asymptote angles and intercepts.
 (2k  1)
angles , q  n  m, k  0,  1,  2, 
q
sa   poles   zeroes
q
301
Summary of Root Locus Plot
Construction
• Determine departure angles. For a pole -p1
( -p1 z1)  (-p1  z2 )    p1  (-p1  p2 )    (2k 1)
• Check for imaginary axis crossings using the
Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
• Determine breakaway points.
angle   / k , k  # of converging loci
d GH ( s ) 
location from 0
ds
• Complete the plot.
302
Root Locus Plot Example 3
jw
• Loop Transfer function: X 4j
K
GH ( s )  asymptotes
s ( s  4)( s 2  4 s  20)
2j
• Roots:
s = 0, s = –4, s = –2  4j 45°
s
X X
• Real axis segments: –4 –2 +1
between 0 and –4 .
• Asymptotes: –2j
(2k  1)   3 5 7
angles = , , ,
40 4 4 4 4 X –4j
   
s a  ( 4 2 2 0 )  2
4 303
jw
X 4j
• Breakaway points:
d K  2j
ds  s 4  8s3  36s 2  80s  45°
s
K ( 4 s 3
 24s 2  72s  80) X X
 4 0 –4 –2 +1
(s  8s  36s  80s)
3 2 2
or s3  6s 2  18s  20  0 –2j
solving, sb  2,  2  2.45 j
• Three points that X –4j
breakaway at 90° . 304
• The imaginary axis
• Condition for critical
crossings:
stability
Characteristic equation 80-8K/26 > 0 or K<260
s 8s 36s  80s  K  0
4
 3
 2
The auxiliary equation
Routh table 26 s 2 + 260 = 0
s4 1 36 K solving
s3 8 80 0 s   10 j   3.16 j
s2 26 K 0
s 80-8K/26 0 0
s0 K 0 0 305
jw
• The final plot is shown X 4j
on the right. 3.16j
2j
• What is the value of s

the gain K X X
–4 –2
corresponding to the
breakaway point at –2j
sb = –2 ± 2.45j ?
X –4j
306
Gain Calculations
• From the general magnitude condition the gain
corresponding to the point s1 on the loci is
n m
K   s1  pi s 1
 zi
i 1 i 1
• For the point s1 = –2 + 2.45j
K = |–2 + 2.45j| ·|–2 + 2.45j + 4| ·|–2 + 2.45j + 2 + 4j|

·|–2 + 2.45j + 2 – 4j| / 1.0
= 3.163 · 3.163 · 6.45 · 1.55 = 100.0
307
jw
• Is there a gain X 4j
corresponding to a 3.16j
damping ratio of 0.707 2j
or more for all system
modes? 45° s
X X
–4
z = 0.707 = cos() –2
 = 45°
–2j
X –4j
308
Time Responses
jw • Examine the responses for
X K=260 4j
the various gains and relate
3.16j them to the location of the
K=64 K=100 2j closed-loop roots.
s • K = 64, roots are –2, –2, –
X X 2±3.46j
–4 –2
• K = 100, roots are –2±2.45j,
–2j –2±2.45j
• K = 260, roots are ±3.16j, –
X –4j 4±3.16j
309
Time Responses
Step Response, K = 64
s = –2±3.46j
1
s = –2, –2
0.8
Amplitude
0.6
whole response
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (sec.)
310
Time Responses
Step Response, K = 100
0.8
s = –2±2.45j (repeated)
Amplitude
0.6
whole response
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (sec.)
311
Time Responses
Step Response K = 260
2
s = ±3.16j
1.8
1.6
1.4
whole response
Amplitude
1.2
0.8
s = –4±3.16j
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (sec.)
312
Root Locus with Other Parameters
• Can we plot the root • Consider the loop transfer
locus in terms of the function (1   s )
GH ( s )  10
variation of a s ( s  2)
parameter other than • characteristic equation
gain, for example a 
s 2  2 s  10 s  10  0
time constant? • regrouping the terms
• To achieve this we 
( s 2  2 s  10)  10 s  0
apply a mathematical • equivalent loop transfer
10 s
trick. function
G H (s) 
s 2  2 s  10
313
• The open-loop poles are  = 0 jw
s = –1 ± 3j and the zero is  = 0.294 X 3j
x
s=0.
• Asymptotes: 180°  = 0.4325  = 0.9
s
• Angle of departure: x x O
–4 –2 +1
108 – (90 + d) = 180
° ° °
d = – 198°
x
• Break-in point sb = – 3.16 X –3j
d  10 s 
 2 0  (s 2  10) 0
ds  s  2s  10  314
Step Responses
 = 0 , s = – 1 ± 3j
 = 0.293 ,
1.2
1
s = – 2.5 ± 2j
Amplitude
0.8
0.6  = 0.4325 ,
0.4 s = – 3.16, s = – 3.16
0.2
0
 = 0.90 ,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 s = – 1, s = – 10
Time (sec.)
315
Root Locus with Two Parameters
• The root locus method • To construct the root
focuses on the roots of locus for a characteristic
the characteristic equation which has two
equation. parameters, we construct
• There can be several fictitious loop transfer
different loop transfer functions and apply the
functions that have the normal methods.
same closed-loop
316
• Consider the following • This will allow the
characteristic equation. plotting of the root locus
s3 + s2 + b s +  = 0 . with respect to the gain b
• Write this in the general for any given value of .
form of 1 + GH(s) = 0 • The roots of the
with b as a multiplying characteristic equation of
gain. GH´(s) define the starting
bs points for the root loci.
1 3 2 0
s  s  Consider the loci of these
GH´(s) roots.
317
• The characteristic jw
equation of GH´(s) is
s3 + s2 +  = 0 , which  2
may be written as 2 1  1
 s
1 0  X XX
s 2 ( s  1) –2 –1

GH´´(s) 1 = 0.3 
s = –1.2, 0.1±0.5j
• Now construct the root 2 = 1.8
locus of GH´´(s) in terms s = –1.66, 0.33±1.0j
of the gain  .
318
• Now construct the root • Asymptotes: ± 90°
locus for 0.3
bs sa (1.20.10.1)/2
GH´(s)  3
s  s2  0.5
where the open-loop 1.2
poles correspond to sa (1.660.330.33)/2
the previous root locus 0.5
for varying  .
319
• Imaginary axis
jw
crossings:
s3 + s2 + bs +  = 0
 2
s3 1 b 0
2 1  1
s
s2 1  0   O
–2 –1
s b 0 0 
s0  0 0 
= b,s2 + 0

sj 
320
Root Locus and Lead Controllers
• Consider the previous example jw
K ( s  4)
GH ( s ) 
s ( s  1  2 j )( s  1  2 j )
X 2j
• Add a pole/zero combination p2
z1 s
at s = – 6 , – 1 . O O Xp
X
• The new asymptote intersects –4 –2 1 +1
p3
the real axis at
X –2j
[(0 –1–1–6) – (–4 –1)]/(4 –2) = –1.5
• Angle of departure from p2 is
7.1° + 90° – tan-1(2/5) = 75.3° 321
Root Locus and Lead Controllers
• Consider the previous example jw
K ( s  4)
GH ( s ) 
s ( s  1  2 j )( s  1  2 j )
X 2j
• Add a pole/zero combination p2
z1 s
at s = – 6 , – 1 . O O Xp
X
• The new asymptote intersects –4 –2 1 +1
p3
the real axis at
X –2j
[(0 –1–1–6) – (–4 –1)]/(4 –2) = –1.5
• Angle of departure from p2 is
7.1° + 90° – tan-1(2/5) = 75.3° 322
Root Locus Lead Design
• Consider again the jw
system defined by
K s1 4j
GH ( s)  Design Point
s( s  2)
s
• Control design X X
–8 –4 –2
specifications:
  0.707
– 4j
settling time  1.0 s
 s4 323
• Can we force the root jw
locus to go through the
design point, s1 ? s1 4j
Design Point
• Consider the effect of s

adding a pole and zero X X X
–8 –4 –2
combination (a lead
compenstor).
– 4j
324
• Three effects of the pole
zero combination: jw
Design Point
– modifies the real axis s1 4j
segments
– shifts the asymptote real
p z s
axis intersection to the X
X X
left –8 –4 –2
– modifies the angle
criterion by – 4j
b  z  p
325
• Design steps:
– place the zero below the jw
design point, s1 (approx.) Design Point
s1 4j
– determine the angle
difference, b  90°  p b
p s
that will satisfy the angle
X X X
criterion for the design p –4 –2
point, s1 .
– locate the pole location – 4j
from the angle, p and
the location of the zero
326
• calculate p
b 135°  116.6°  180° jw
Design Point
b  431.6° or 71.6° s1 4j
\ p  90°  71.6°  18.4° b

116.6° 135° s
18.4°
X X X
– 16 –8 –4 –2
• calculate the pole location
tan(18.4°)  4 / ( 4  p) – 4j
\ p  4/0.333  4   16
327
• The asymptote intersection:
sa  (0 2 16)  (4) jw
31
\ sa   7 Design Point s1 4j
s
X X X
– 16 –8 –4 –2
• Determine the gain at the
design point: – 4j
K  5.56 • 4.47 • 12.65 / 4  78.6

328
• The final compensator is
s4
Gc  78.6
s  16 • The final closed-loop
Note: the lead compensator systems is
  16/4  4 s4
G  78.6
s 3  18 s 2  110 .6 s  314.4
• The compensated open-
loops system is
s4 1

Gc G p 78.6
s  16 s ( s  2)
329
Closed-Loop System Step Responses
1.5
20
GH ( s) 
78.6( s  4) 1 s( s  2)
GH ( s) 
( s  16) s( s  2)
1
Amplitude
1
GH ( s) 
s( s  2)
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (sec.)
330
Root Locus Lag Design
• Pole/zero placement: jw
– The lag compensator is
represented by a pole near
the imaginary axis and a
zero further to the left. s
• Low frequency gain: X
–1 –z –p
– The compensator low
frequency gain is Lag compensator
|z| sz
  s p
| p|
331
s1
• Desired effects of the lag: jw

– increase the low frequency gain < 2
to achieve desired steady-state
error specifications, the gain
increase is  . s
X
–1 –z –p
– Introduce very little effect on
the path of the root locus, ie. Lag compensator
sz
(s1  z )  (s1  p)  2 o
s p
332
• Relate the angle requirement jw
and low frequency gain: (note
s1
2° = 0.035 rad.) By similar triangles jw1
| z|| p| L < 2

0.035L w1
L
then 0.035L2
| p | (   1)  f
w1 s
X
0.035(s 1  w1 ) – s1 –z –p
2 2
| p | f
w1 (   1)
333
• Design steps:
– Determine a point, s1 on the – Calculate the compensator
uncompensated loci that pole location using s1 and
satisfies the dynamic  in the relationship
requirements.
0.035(s 1  w1 )
2 2
– Find the gain at s1 and then | p |
the low frequency gain of the w1 (   1)
system. – Finally, calculate the
– Determine the low frequency compensator zero from
gain,  of the compensator |z|
required to meet the system  
| p|
steady-state error requirement.
334
Root Locus Lag Design Example
jw
• Consider again the K = 2 • 2 /1 = 4
system defined by
K=4 s1
K 1.73j
GH ( s) 
s( s  2) K=1
60° s
• Control design X X
–2
specifications:
  0.50
ess  5% for a ramp
input.
335
• The velocity steady- • The compensator pole
state error constant is magnitude is

4
2 ( 1  1.73 2
)
K v lim s
s 0 s ( s  2 )
| p |  0.035
1.73 (10  1)
For ess  0.05, Kv  20 = 0.0128
• The compensator zero
• Therefore the compensator magnitude is
low-frequency gain must | z | =  | p | = 0.128
be   10 .
336
• The final compensator is • The final closed-loop
s  0.128 systems is
Gc  4 .0
s  0.0128
s  0.128
G4 3
• The compensated open- s  2.013s 4.026s  0.512
2
loops system is
s  0.128 1 • The roots of the final

GcG p 4.0 closed-loop systems are
s  0.0128 s( s  2)
s = -0.9386 ± 1.7000i
s = -0.1358
337
Root Locus of Final System
2
1.5
0.5
Imag Axis
0 x
0.25
-0.5 0.2
0.15
0.1
-1
0.05
Imag Axis
0
xx
-1.5 -0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-2 -0.2
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-0.25
Real Axis
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05
Real Axis
338
Step Responses
Step Response
1.2
compensated
1
uncompensated
0.8
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec.) 339
Ramp Response
Ramp Response
10
9
8
7 unit ramp compensated

Amplitude
5
uncompensated
4
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec.) 340

Control Systems I

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Control Systems I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

By G.michael Teame (M.

Eeng 402 Linear Control Systems

• To teach classical methods for analysing control

• To teach classical control system analysis and design

• Systems interact with their environment across a

• The interaction is defined in terms of variables.

• The system’s function is expressed in terms of measured

• The system’s operation is manipulated through the control

• The system’s operation is also affected in an uncontrolled

• The input and output relationship represents the cause and

• All control systems have similar structure and consist of

Information Variables Physical Variables

Controller (algorithm or mechanism) compensators

Disturbance signal or noise

If Ka is very large such that,

Again, if the loop gain, Ka Km Kl Ks is large,

• Test the control design on a computer simulation of

• Implement and test the design on the actual process

2. A detailed model allows some verification of

• For verification studies, all model details are

2. Determine the model for each component or

4. Verify the model validity and accuracy.

i Inductance v = L di/dt v = L dq2/dt2

i + Capacitance v = 1/C  i dt v = 1/C q

If, vi (t )  A sin(w t ) , then Vo ( jw )  1

Transfer Function , G(s)

Taking the Laplace B

Transfer Function , G(s)

vi   voltages accross components

Within each class there are subclasses of

Time invariant Time varying

nonlinear eqs. linear eqs.

time varying time invariant

To linearize, discard the 2nd and higher order terms.

2. Linearize each term of the differential equation as

3. In this process, treat the dependent variable and

This diagram provides a description of the system functional

• There is 1 motor torque equation, 2 armature circuit

Setting Td(s) = 0 , the transfer function is

Note: If the armature time constant, La/Ra is much

With Td(s)=0 , first combine the inner forward path.

Ea(s) G1G2G3 ( s ) m(s)

The final series combination is

Ea(s) G1G2G3G4 ( s ) m(s)

Note: The defined values of the components may be substituted in

• A signal flow graph represents the same information

• Summation node Distribution node

• Draw in all the branches connecting the nodes and

• Check for any additional nodes and branches

• Loops not touching forward path 1: none

• Consider the transfer function from the disturbance

then  = 1 – (– G2H1 – G4H2) + (G2G4H1H2)

C ( s) M 11  M 2  2 G6G4G5 (1  G2 H1 )  G1G2G3G4G5

– unit impulse input:  (t )  0 t < 0  (t)

Using Laplace transforms to solve the equation

• Assume that for t < 0, r(t) = 0 and c(0) =

• With a step input, R(s) = 1/s and

• Use partial fraction expansion to obtain the

0.8 damping envelope

• The relationships between the damping constant,

• The standard form of a second-order system

• The step response in these terms is

1.6 The damping