TCP/IP

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

•Is a suite of communication protocols used to
interconnect network devices on the internet.
•Used as a communications protocol in a private network
(an intranet or an extranet).
•The entire internet protocol suite -- a set of rules and procedures --
is commonly referred to as TCP/IP
•specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-
to-end communications
•identifies how data should be broken into packets, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination.
• Requires little central management, and designed to make
networks reliable
•ability to recover automatically from the failure of any device on
the network.
• TCP defines how applications can create channels of communication
across a network.
• TCP manages how a message is assembled into smaller packets before
they are transmitted over the internet and reassembled in the right
order at the destination address.
• IP defines how to address and route each packet to make sure it
reaches the right destination.
•Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address to
determine where to forward the message.
How TCP/IP works
• Uses the client/server model of communication
• A user or machine (a client) is provided a service (like sending a
webpage) by another computer (a server) in the network.
•TCP/IP suite of protocols is classified as stateless,
• Stateless means each client request is considered new because it is
unrelated to previous requests.
•Being stateless frees up network paths so they can be used
continuously.
•The transport layer itself is stateful.
•It transmits a single message, and its connection remains in place until
all the packets in a message have been received and reassembled at the
destination
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:
TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems
Protocol. Interconnection.
TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
TCP/IP does not have very strict
OSI has strict boundaries
boundaries.
TCP/IP follow a horizontal
OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.
TCP/IP uses both session and
OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the
presentation layers.
application layer itself.
TCP/IP developed protocols then OSI developed model then
model. protocol.
Layer 1 –Link layer/Network interface Layer

• First layer of the four layer TCP/IP model.

•Combines the physical and data link layer functions into a single layer
•Includes frame physical network functions like modulation, line coding ,
bit synchronization, frame synchronization and error detection
•Include encapsulation of IP packets into frames for transmission,
mapping IP addresses to physical hardware addresses (MAC Addresses)

• Defines details of how data is physically sent through the network,

including how bits are electrically or optically signaled by hardware
devices that interface directly with a network medium, such as coaxial
cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.

•The protocols included are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame
Relay etc.
Layer 2 –Internet Layer
• It defines the protocols which are responsible for logical transmission
of data over the entire network.

•Functions include traffic routing, traffic control, fragmentation, and

logical addressing.

•Packs data into data packets known as IP datagrams, which contain

source and destination address (logical address or IP address).

•It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.

•It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.

•The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:

•Delivering IP packets
•Performing routing
•Avoiding congestion
•The main protocols residing at this layer are :
•IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at
the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and
IPv6.
•ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing
hosts with information about network problems.
•ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has
several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse
ARP.
Layer 3 –Transport Layer/Host Layer
•Functions include message segmentation, acknowledgement, traffic
control, session multiplexing, error detection and correction
(resends), and message reordering
•It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single
path.
•Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data
is done by transport layer.
•The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
•Transport layer adds header information to the data.
•Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that
they are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
•Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.
•The two main protocols that operate at this layer are Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The two main protocols present in this layer are :

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable

and error-free communication between end systems. It performs
sequencing and segmentation of data. It also has acknowledgment
feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control
mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due
to such features. Increased overhead leads to increased cost.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – UDP protocol consists of fewer fields

compared to TCP. The reason for that is because certain data types do
not require reliable delivery and extra overhead.
UDP is considered to be a connectionless protocol. It leaves reliability
to be handled by the application layer. All it cares about is fast
transmission.
Layer 4-The Application Layer/Process Layer
•The Application layer is the highest layer in the TCP/IP model
• Is related to the session, presentation and application layers of the OSI
model.
•The application layer of the TCP/IP model is used to handle all process-
to-process communication functions
•There are a number of different functions which are carried out by this
layer, including session establishment, maintenance and termination,
character code translations, data conversion, compression and
encryption, remote access, network management and electronic
messaging
•Common protocols include TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS
TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting
to a remote machine and run applications on it.
FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer
amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple
and efficient.
SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via
a route.
DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address
for Hosts connected over a network.
Advantages of TCP/IP
•TCP/IP is nonproprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single
company. Therefore, the internet protocol suite can be modified easily.
•It is compatible with all operating systems, so it can communicate with
any other system.
•The internet protocol suite is also compatible with all types of
computer hardware and networks.

Demerits of TCP/IP
•In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
•The model cannot be used in any other application.
•Replacing protocol is not easy.
•It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.
Bridges
•Operate in both physical and data link layer
•Divide large network into smaller segments
•Contain logic that allows them to keep the traffic for each segment
separate
• useful for controlling congestion and isolating problems links
•Provide security through partitioning of traffic
•Operates at data link layer, giving it access to the physical addresses of
all station connected to it
•When a frame enters the bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the
signal but checks the address of the destination and forwards the new
copy only to the segment to which the address belongs
•As a bridge encounters a packets it reads the address contained in the
frame and compares that address with a table of all stations on both the
segments
•When it finds a match it discovers to which segment the station
belongs and relays the packet only to that segment.
Types of Bridges

Simple Bridge
•Most primitive and least expensive type of bridge
•Links two segments and contains a table that lists the addresses of
all station include in each on them
•Address must be entered manually
•Whenever a station is added or removed up gradation should be
done accordingly
•Straightforward and inexpensive to manufacture
•Installation and maintenance is time consuming
•Potentially more trouble than the cost saving worth

Multiport Bridges
•Used to connect more than two LANS
Transparent Bridges/Learning Bridges
•Bridge builds its table of station addresses on its own as it performs its
bridge functions
•When first installed the table is empty
•As it encounters each packet it looks at destination and the source
addresses
•It checks the destination to decide where to send the packet
•If it does not recognize the destination address it relays the packets to
all of the stations on both segments
•It uses the source address to build its table
•As it reads the source address it notes which side the packet come from
and associate that address with the segment to which it belong s
•With the first packet transmitted by each station, the bridge learns the
segment associated with station
•Eventually it has a complete table of station addresses and their
respective segments stored in its memory
•Continuities this process even after the table is complete , a
transparent bridge is also updating
ROUTERS
•Operate in physical ,data link and network layer
•contain software that enables them to determine which of several
possible path between those addresses is the best for a particular
transmission
•Relay packets among multiple interconnected network
•Route packets from one network to any number of potential
destination networks on an internet
•Act like station on a network
•Routers have addresses and links to two or more network at the same
time
•Routing is classified as non adaptive or adaptive
•Nonadaptive Routing : once a pathway to a destination has been
selected, routers sends all packets for that destination along that
one route
•Adaptive Routing: A router selects a new route for each
packet(even packets belonging to same transmission)in response to
change in condition and topology of the network
GATEWAYS
•Gateways potentially operate in all seven layers of OSI model
•A gateway is protocol converter
•Can accept a packet formatted for one protocol and convert it to a
packet formatted for another protocol before forwarding it
•A gateway is generally software installed within router
• the gateway understands the protocols used by each network linked
into the router and is therefore able to translate from one to another
•In some cases the only modification necessary are the header and tailer
of the packet
•In other cases the gateways must adjust the data rate, size and format
as well