LOGIC

DENNIS M. BAUTISTA, M.A.T.

 IDEA

• An intellectual representation of a thing.

• The enumeration of the notes which constitute a thing
• The intellectual grasp of the essence of a thing.

• NB: The idea does not photograph the object. It may be rather compared to a portrait.
IDEA
 IDEA

• Formation:
• Abstraction- the mental process by which our intellect separates the essential elements of a
thing from the accidental ones.
• Essential – that which makes a thing that thing. Essential parts without which a thing ceases to be
that thing.
• Ex. Body + Soul = Man
• Accidental- things which have been added to the essence.
• Ex. Color
 IDEA

• Division of Abstraction
1. Physical- it ignores all the individual notes of a thing.
ex. Iron expands with heat. (Shape & amount are disregarded)
2. Mathematical – disregards all material elements, except extension i.e. number &
proportion. ex. The sum total of all angles in a triangle is 180˚. (the material, shape, &
size of the triangle are not considered)
3. Metaphysical – leaves out of consideration all material notes of a thing.
ex. Beauty, truth, bravery. (Whether beauty is found in man or in God, in a flower, in a
thought, or in a deed remains unconsidered.)
 IDEA

• Comprehension and Extension

• Comprehension- the sum total of all the notes or thought-elements which constitute an idea.
• ex. WOMAN (with a child – of her own)
- Implication, Connotation, Intension

• Extension- the sum total of all individuals or groups to which an idea can be applied.
• ex. Living Being (applies to spirits, men and animals)
-Application, Denotation
 IDEA

Classification:
Intuitive
Origin
Abstraction
Adequate
Distinct
Clear Confused Inadequate
Explicit Obscure
Perfection
Implicit
 IDEA

Classification:
Compatible
Mutual Relation or Opposition Contradictory
Incompatible Contrary
Privative
Relative
 IDEA

Classification
simple idea
re number of notes composite idea
Comprehension concrete idea
re subject abstract idea
 IDEA

Classification
Singular
Universal
Extension Collective
Particular
 UNIVERSALS

Nature:
The universal idea is applicable to a class as a whole and to each and every
member of that class.
Problem:
These dual characteristics bring about the problem – how can it be one and
many at the same time?
Reality:
The universal idea as one exists only in the mind but it has its manifold existence in the
likeness of the essence in each and all of the things belonging to the same class.
 UNIVERSALS

• Division of Universals:
Direct Universal idea – expresses the nature of the essence of a thing as a thing in itself,
without its relationship to other things or ideas.
Logical Universal idea – expresses a nature common to many precisely insofar as it is applicable
to many.
 UNIVERSALS

Predicaments – refers to the set of fundamental ideas in terms of which all other ideas can be expressed.
Categories or Predicaments:
1. Substance – a being existing in and for itself and does not need any other as a subject in which to exist.
It has its own meaning and value
ex. Plant, Chair, Dog, Table, Tree

Accidents – is a being which does not exist in and for itself; therefore needs another in which to exist.
 UNIVERSALS

Classifications:
1. Quantity – modifies the material element in a being, such as extension or number.
2. Quality – modifies the formal element in a being. It gives characteristics or traits.
3. Relations – is the reference or bearing of one being with another.
4. Action – the production of an effect in another.
5. Passion – the reception of an effect from another.
6. Time – expresses a situation in time.
7. Place – expresses position in space
8. Posture – determines the position of the parts of the substance among themselves.
9. Habit – determines the substance according to its physical adjuncts, such as clothing and equipment .
 UNIVERSALS

• Predicable – expresses either the essence of a thing or non-essential, superadded notes.

whole ………………….. Species
Essence common ………... Genus
part
special …………… Difference
necessarily ………….. Property
Superadded
incidentally ………….. Accident
 UNIVERSALS

Predicables - refer to the kinds of relations which may be obtained between a term and the subject
of which it is predicated.
1. Genus - universal idea which expresses a part of the essence of a thing, that part which is
common with other species in the same class.
Man is an animal
An octagon is a polygon
Guitar is a stringed musical instrument.
2. Specific difference - universal idea which expresses a part of the essence of a thing, that part which
differentiates it from that of other species.
Man is rational.
An octagon is 8 sided.
Guitar has six strings.
 UNIVERSALS

3. Species - expresses the complete essence of a thing. (constituted by adding the specific difference to the
genus.
Man is a rational animal.
Guitar is a six stringed musical instrument.
An octagon is an 8-sided polygon.
4. Property - a universal idea that expresses an attribute that belongs to the thing by natural necessity. It is
not a part of the essence of the thing, yet it belongs to that thing and to it alone.
Man is capable of learning grammar, of thinking, of morality.
Water freezes at 0 degrees C; boils at 100degrees C.
 UNIVERSALS

5. Logical Accident - a universal idea that is not part of the essence of a thing but something
that belongs to the thing, not by natural necessity, but by contingency.
Andrew is tall, intelligent and kinky-haired.
The guitar is electric.
 IDENTIFY THE PREDICAMENTS AND PREDICABLE

1. An octopus is a mollusk 6. Man’s normal temperature is 37 degrees.

2. The building is very tall 7. Microscope is an instrument using lens.

3. The elephant is heavy. 8. Immanuel is a cat.

4. He went to the corner by crawling. 9. The man went home.
5. It was raining last night.
 DEFINITION

• The term definition is derived from the Latin word defenire, meaning “to state the limits
of” or “to enclose within limits.”
• Thus to define a thing is to limit it. A thing can be limited by unfolding its nature, by
getting its meaning, or by laying hold of what it includes. Definitions marks off the thing
defined and differentiates it from other things. Through definition, a term is made definite
as to its precise meaning (Bapor,2007).
 DEFINITION

• A statement which explains something.

Essential
Distinctive-giving the properties of a thing.
Real Definition Genetic-indicates the process of becoming or origin of a thing
Non-Essential Causal- gives the efficient or the final cause of a thing.
Accidental-gives the mere description of a thing.
 DEFINITION

Definition has three (3) elements

(definiendum, definiens, denotata)
1. Definiendum – is a term to be defined (Joven,2006)
Example: “ A bird is an animal with feathers, such as chicken, owl, and ostrich,”
( bird is the definiendum)
2. Definiens – is a word or phrase that explains or describes the defining property of the definiendum
(Joven,2006).
– It has two (2) parts, namely: A. Proximate genus B. Specific differentia
 DEFINITION

A. Proximate genus- is the nearest general class to which a thing belongs (Montemayor,1993).
Example: “A bird is an animal with feathers, such as chicken, owl, and ostrich,”
(animal is the proximate genus)
B. Specific differentia- refers to the essential characteristics that differentiates a thing from the
rest of the group.
Example: “A bird is an animal with feathers, such as chicken, owl, and ostrich,”
(feathers is the specific differentia)
 DEFINITION

3. Denotata – provides a concrete examples of the extension of the definiendum

(Acuna,1998).
Example: “A bird is an animal with feathers, such as chicken, owl, and ostrich,”
( chicken, owl, and ostrich are the denotata)
 DEFINITION

Rules of Definitions:
1. Avoid circular definitions.–-A circular definition usually repeats the defined word in the
definition (porter, 2002).
Examples:
A cook book - as “a book used to cook” (is not very informative)
High unemployment - as “a great many people out of work.”
 DEFINITION

2. The definition must be clearer than the thing to be defined.

-Metaphorical expression must be avoided.
- Unusual term must be avoided.
– A Metaphorical definition is unclear because it does not give the literal meaning of the concept,
but only an analogy that requires interpretation;
– It generally uses figurative or emotive language that odds to the ambiguity (Porter,2002).
Example:
Knowledge - as ‘antidote to fear”
Friendship- as “a sheltering tree,”
 DEFINITION

3. The definition must be convertible with the idea defined.

Example: Man is a rational animal. - A rational animal is man.
- If the definition is unduly broad, it will cover too much, failing to rule out things that are extraneous.
Examples:
Book -as “rectangular object” is too broad, since there are many rectangular objects beside books.
- If the definition is too narrow, it will cover too little, excluding things that should be included in the term.
Examples:
Human being- as an “intelligent, self -aware, tool-making, language-using animal w/ emotions, five sense,
movement, and moral and religious sensibilities.”
(by being too detailed, such a definition would exclude the blind, deaf, and retarded; paralyzed or in coma; fetuses and
babies.etc..)
 DEFINITION

4. Avoid negative terms. - A definition should not use negative terms unnecessarily.
Example:
Good is “not bad”
(would not give a satisfactory definition since it does not provide much about what good actually is.)
–In general, negative definition should be avoided because a definition should state what a thing is and not
what is not.
-If a positive idea is expressed by a negative term, the definition must be positive.
Example:
Immortality is everlasting duration of existence.
 DIVISION
(GR. ΔΙΑΊΡΕΣΙΣ, LAT. DIVISIO)

Nominal:
• Di – Dis = off, apart
• Vis – Vid (from videre) = to see
• Hence: to see apart, to distinguish
Real:
Division is the resolving (separation) of a whole into its part.
 DIVISION

ESSENTIAL
PHYSICAL HOMOGENEOUS
INTEGRAL
REAL
HETEROGENEOUS
DIVISION METAPHYSICAL
MENTAL
LOGICAL
 DIVISION

• PHYSICAL DIVISION
 DIVISION

• METAPHYSICAL DIVISION
 DIVISION

• LOGICAL DIVISION
 DIVISION

Rules of Division:
1. There should be one basis
for the whole division, one
point of view throughout
the whole process.
 DIVISION

Rule of Division:
2. Division should be
 DIVISION

Rule of Division:
The division should be clear.
Hence:
a. reasonably limited in number
b. orderly
 QUIZ
I. IDENTIFICATION:
1. The resolving of a whole into its parts.
2. Divides a thing into parts of different shape.
3. The resolution of a thing into its natural parts which it has independently of our mind.
4. Divides a thing into parts of equal shape.
5. Resolving a universal idea into the members of its extension.
6. Dividing a thing into its physical parts.
7. An act of the intellect pronouncing the agreement or disagreement of ideas among
themselves.
8. Resolves a thing into its essential parts.
9. Resolution of a thing into parts that make it complete.
Test II: Determine whether the logical division is VALID or INVALID.
1. Liquid measures are millimeter, ounce, pint, quart and gallon.
2. Terms are classified according to its significance as: Analogous, Univocal & Equivocal
3. Bees in the hive are: workers and drones.
4. Sigmund Freud stated that the mind works in 3 different levels: Ergo, Ego & Superego.
5. Political parties in the Philippines are: Liberals and Nationalists.
6. Planets in our solar system: Mercury,Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus & Neptune
7. Ideas are subdivided: Explicit, Clear, Obscure & Confused.
8. Caste in India: Brahmans and Untouchables.
9. Substance are either material or immaterial.
10. Figures of speech are classified as; Simile, Metaphor, idiom, & hyperbole.
 PROPOSITION

Definition:
Nominal:
-Pro-ponere = to set forth.
Real:
- a judgement expressed in a sentence
- an oral expression of a judgement.
 PROPOSITION

Elements:
Subject –who or what the sentence is about.
Predicate –tells about that subject
Copula- the connecting link between subject and predicate.
ex.
The dog is running.
“Our team will win the game.”
-A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false.
 PROPOSITION

A Every S is P Universal Affirmative

E No S is P Universal Negative
I Some S is P Particular Affirmative
O Some S is not P Particular Negative
 PROPOSITION

• Two propositions are contradictory if they cannot both be

true and they cannot both be false.
• Two propositions are contraries if they cannot both be true
but can both be false.
• Two propositions are subcontraries if they cannot both be
false but can both be true.
• A proposition is a subaltern of another if it must be true if its
superaltern is true, and the superaltern must be false if the
subaltern is false.
 PROPOSITION
SUMMARY TABLE
GIVEN INFERENCE

A - TRUE E - FALSE I - TRUE O - FALSE

E - TRUE A - FALSE I - FALSE O - TRUE

1 - TRUE A - DOUBTFUL E - FALSE O - DOUBTFUL

O - TRUE A - FALSE E - DOUBTFUL I - DOUBTFUL

A - FALSE E - DOUBTFUL I - DOUBTFUL O - TRUE

E - FALSE A - DOUBTFUL I - TRUE O - DOUBTFUL

I - FALSE A - FALSE E - TRUE O - TRUE

O - FALSE A - TRUE E - FALSE I - TRUE

 QUIZ

1. Boys are human beings. (TRUE)

2. All students of LNHS are present. (FALSE)
3. No man is an island. (FALSE)
4. Some nurses are women. (TRUE)
5. Some fruits are not sweet. (TRUE)
6. Some leaders are not heroes. (FALSE)
7. Some music are loud. (FALSE)
 DETERMINING THE QUALITY OF THE PREDICATE
(P)

• Ex.
• If the copula is affirmative (+)
All men are mortal.
the quantity of the predicate (P)
Su + Pp
is particular (p).
• If the copula is negative (+) the No man is perfect.
quantity of the predicate (P) is Su - Pu

universal (u).
EDUCTION
 EDUCTION

-the formulation of a new proposition by the interchange of subject and

predicate of an original proposition and/or by the use or removal or negatives.
Two main forms:
1. Conversion
2. Obversion
 EDUCTION

Conversion-the formulation of a new Ex.

proposition by interchanging the No brute is a rational being.
subject and the predicate of an original (original proposition)
proposition but leaving its quality No rational being is a brute.
unchanged. (Converted-converse)
 EDUCTION
CONVERSION

1. Simple – The same quantity is maintained.
Ex. E–E
No trees are animals.
No animals are trees.
I-I
Some nurses are woman.
Some woman are nurses.
2. Partial – The quantity of the proposition
is reduced from universal to particular.
Ex. A-I
All men are mortal –
Some mortal beings are men.
E–O
No trees are animals. –
Some animals are not trees.
 EDUCTION
CONVERSION

Note:
- Only E and I can be converted by simple conversion.
- A cannot be converted by simple conversion.
- O cannot be converted at all
- I and O do not have partial conversion.
 EDUCTION
CONVERSION

Rules: Kinds of Conversion:

• Interchange S and P. a. Simple (E – E) ; (I – I)
• Retain quality.
• Do not extend any term. b. Partial (A – E) ; (E – O)
• Be sure proposition is in logical
form.
 EDUCTION
OBVERSION

• The formulation of a new proposition by retaining the subject and quantity of the
original proposition, changing its quality; using as predicate the contradictory of
the original predicate.
Ex.
Every tree is a plant. - No tree is nonplant.
Obvertend Obverse
 EDUCTION
OBVERSION

Rules: A-E : Every tree is a plant. –

1. Retain subject and quantity of obvertend. No tree is nonplant.
2. Change quality: affirmative to negative or
E-A: No honesty is a lie. –
vice-versa.
All honesty is nonlie.
3. As predicate, use the contradictory of the
predicate of the original proposition. I-O: Some fruits are sweet.
Some fruits are not nonsweet.
O-I: Some music is not loud.
Some music is nonloud.
 FALLACY

Fallacy -a violation of a logical principle, disguised under a show of

validity.
-if the fallacy is fabricated with the intention to deceive others, it is
called sophism.
- if the fallacy is committed unconsciously, it is called a paralogism.
Classification of Fallacies: FALLACY
1. Fallacies in the Language.
a. Equivocation: a word is used in different meanings.
ex.You have faith in science, and I have faith in God.
b. Amphiboly (double turn): the ambiguous use of a complete sentence.
ex. Last night I caught a prowler in my pajamas. Therefore, it is important
to keep your pajamas locked up securely where no one else can get them.
 FALLACY

c. Composition: taking jointly what should be taken separately.

ex. Because all of the components of this car are light and easy to carry, then
the car itself must also be light and easy to carry.
d. Division: taking separately what should be taken jointly.
ex. That NBA team is the best all-around team, therefore, every individual
player on that team is the best.
 FALLACY
e. Accent: an ambiguity arising from a false accent or emphasis in speech.
ex. "Why are you asking me about Mary's message? I resent her question.“

f. Figure of Speech: Similarity of diction leads to a conclusion of similar or

identical meaning.
ex. "I have butterflies in my stomach".
 FALLACY

2. Fallacies of Matter
a. Accident: The confusion of the accidental/essential elements of a thing.
ex. The Bible clearly says, “Thou shall not bear false witness.” Therefore, as a
Christian, you better answer the door and tell our drunk neighbor with the
shotgun, that his wife, whom he is looking to kill, is hiding in our basement.
Otherwise, you are defying God himself!
 FALLACY

b. Absolute and Qualified Statements: Arguing from a generally true statement to a specific case without
recognizing its peculiarity, or arguing from a special case to the general class.
ex. Some drugs help promote a person’s well-being. Therefore, indulging to cocaine is encouraged.
c. Ignoring the Issue (Ignoratio elenchi) or Red Herring: Proving what is not to be proved, or
not proving what is to be proved.
ex. Mike: It is morally wrong to cheat on your spouse, why on earth would you have done that?
Ken: But what is morality exactly?
Mike: It’s a code of conduct shared by cultures.
Ken: But who creates this code?...
 FALLACY

d. Begging the Question (Petitio principii) meaning “Assuming the initial [thing]“ (commonly
mistranslated as "begging the question": occurs when the premises presume, openly or covertly, the very
conclusion that is to be demonstrated.
ex. “The Bible is true because the Bible says it’s true”
e. False Cause: The Causal Fallacy is any logical breakdown when identifying a cause.You can think
of the Causal Fallacy as a parent category for several different fallacies about unproven causes.
e.1. Non causa pro causa ("not the-cause for a cause") : mislocates the cause of one
phenomenon in another that is only seemingly related.
ex.“Since your parents named you ‘Harvest,’ they must be farmers.”
 FALLACY

e.2. Post Hoc fallacy("after this, therefore because of this"): This fallacy happens when
you mistake something for the cause just because it came first. The key words here are
“Post” and “propter” meaning “after" and "because of." Just because this came before that
doesn’t mean this caused that. Post doesn’t prove propter.
ex. “Yesterday, I walked under a ladder with an open umbrella indoors while spilling salt
in front of a black cat. And I forgot to knock on wood with my lucky dice. That must be
why I’m having such a bad day today. It’s bad luck.”
 FALLACY

e.3. cum hoc ergo propter hoc (“with this therefore because of this"). This fallacy happens when you mistakenly
interpret two things found together as being causally related. Two things may correlate without a causal relation, or
they may have some third factor causing both of them to occur. Or perhaps both things just, coincidentally, happened
together. Correlation doesn’t prove causation.

ex: “Every time Joe goes swimming he is wearing his Speedos. Something about wearing that Speedo must
make him want to go swimming.” That statement is a correlational fallacy. Sure it’s theoretically possible that he
spontaneously sports his euro-style swim trunks, with no thought of where that may lead, and surprisingly he’s
now motivated to dive and swim in cold, wet nature. That’s possible. But it makes more sense that he put on his
trunks because he already planned to go swimming.
 FALLACY

Variation of Ignoring the Issue:

1. Appeal to People (Argumentum ad Populum): The fallacy of attempting to win popular
assent to a conclusion by arousing the feeling and enthusiasms of the multitude.
ex. Person L says statement p or argument A. Person L is in the elite. Statement p is true or
argument A is good.
2. Appeal to Shame or Modesty: that occurs when someone's actions or arguments are
described as "shameful" (meaning, looked down upon by others in society) and therefore
wrong.
ex. "Aren't you ashamed for having that opinion?"
 FALLACY

3. Appeal to Pity (ad Misericordiam): The attempt to distract from the truth of the conclusion by the use of pity.
ex. I really deserve an “A” on this paper, professor. Not only did I study during my grandmother’s funeral, but I also
passed up the heart transplant surgery, even though that was the first matching donor in 3 years.
4. Appeal to the Individual (ad Hominen):Also know as the Fallacy of Personal Attack or speaking “against the man”
rather than to the issue), in which the premises may only make a personal attack on a person who holds some thesis, instead of
offering grounds showing why what he says is false.
ex. Barack Obama in 2012 about Mitt Romney: Now, Governor Romney has taken a different approach
throughout this campaign. Both at home and abroad, he has proposed wrong and reckless policies. He’s praised
George Bush as a good economic steward and Dick Cheney as somebody who has—shows great wisdom and judgment.
FALLACY