CIVIL ENGINEERING

MATERIALS - CIVE 2319

LEC 2 MATERIAL PERFORMANCE AND ITS
MEASUREMENT
Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali
Department of Civil Engineering, IIUM
Reference Books
 Materials in Construction – An introduction by G.D.
Taylor, Longman
 Materials in Construction – Principles, practice and
performance by G.D. Taylor, Longman
FORCES, LOADS, AND STRESSES
 When a body is pulled or pushed, it is said to be
acted upon by a force.
 When a solid body is subjected to external forces
called load, the body deformed and internal forces
are produced.
 The internal forces or internal stresses that act
between consecutive particles are said to be
proportional to the external load. This balancing
act between internal and external forces is stated
to maintain the equilibrium condition of body.
BASIC STRESS CONFIGURATION –
 Compression
 Tension
 Bending
 Shear
 Torsion
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES -
 These are associated with the effects of load
 Strength – the ability of a material or component to
carry load without structural failure or excessive plastic
deformation.
 Load is normally expressed as stress (load/area)
because normally concentration of load that causes
failure
 Structural failure
 – for brittle materials – when the limit of elasticity is
reached, they are closed to disintegration or failure
 - for ductile materials – when excessive deformation take
place
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
6
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

dplastic
delastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
7
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft t= F
s= = N Ao
Ao m2
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
8
N/m2
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
9
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
Balanced Rock, Arches s=
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao

10
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
• Shear strain: is the tangent of the strain angle q
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
11
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
 Stress Strain Behaviour
Linear Elastic Properties
12
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
Based on data in Table B.2,
800 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Carbon fibers only
Composite data based on
Al oxide
Molybdenum Si nitride reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)* of aligned
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only carbon (CFRE),
100 Zinc, Ti aramid (AFRE), or
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
60 Aluminum Glass fibers only glass (GFRE)
Magnesium,
40 Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* fibers.
Concrete

109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8
High modulus of
CFRE( fibers) *
6
Polyester
AFRE( fibers) * elasticity – relatively
4 PET
PS stiff, do not deflect
PC Epoxy only
2 easily.
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
13 LDPE
0.2
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

14
 Tensile properties - Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
15
 Tensile Strength, TS
16
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
•Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation start
Mechanical Properties - STIFFNESS

 Stiffness the ability of the material to resist elastic

deformation under load
 Stiffness is normally measured by elastic modulus E
 Unit KN/mm2
 The higher the elastic modulus the stiffer is the
material ( see slide 13)
Mechanical Properties Toughness (Impact resistance)
• Material's resistance to fracture when crack.
•Ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform before
fracturing.
•Energy to break a unit volume of material.
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
•For a metal to be tough it must display both strength and ductility
•Strong material are not always tough e.g. cast iron
•Relatively weak materials can have high toughness e.g. leather
small toughness (ceramics)
Engineering
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy
18 Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
 Fracture Toughness Testing.
Impact Testing
19 • Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
8.12(b) is adapted from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J.
Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

 Mechanical Properties - Hardness
• A measure of material's resistance to localized plastic deformation.
20 • Resistance to indentation under stress
•Depend on a combination of strength and stiffness properties
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties (relevant to floor and wall surface).
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Mohs scale
 Hardness: Measurement
21

 Rockwell
 Indenters – spherical and hardened steel balls
 No major sample damage
 Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
 Initial minor load 10 kg
 Followed by major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
 A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

 HB = Brinell Hardness
 Similar to Rockwell but load is maintained constant for a specified time
(10-30 sec)

 Correlation between hardness and tensile strength

 TS (MPa) = 3.45 X HB
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES - CREEP

 Creep is the effect of long term stress, leading to

additional distortion or failure
 Material subject to creep are timber, clay, lead,
concrete, thermoplastic to a very small extent glass
CREEP: STRESS &TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm
or increasing stress
1) Instantaneous
strain increase
2) Steady state
creep increase
tertiary
3) Rapture
primary lifetime is
secondary
diminished
elastic

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
23
Creep Failure
• Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

24
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES - FATIGUE

 Fatigue is the effect of load reversals such as

vibration which lead to failure at relatively low
stress
 Structures that are subjected to fatigue load –
bridges, building in earth quake situation, motor
 Fatigue may be the critical factor in design
Fatigue of Metals
 Metals often fail at much lower stress at cyclic loading
compared to static loading.
 Crack nucleates at region of stress concentration and
propagates due to cyclic loading.
 Failure occurs when
cross sectional area
of the metal too small Fracture started here
to withstand applied
load.
Fatigue fractured
surface of keyed
shaft
26 Final rupture
 Fatigue
27
• Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top Adapted from Fig. 8.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
motor (Fig. 8.18 is from Materials
bearing bearing counter
Science in Engineering, 4/E
by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson
flex coupling Education, Inc., Upper
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

• Stress varies with time. s

smax
-- key parameters are S(stress
S
amplitude), sm (mean stress), and sm
cycling frequency smin time

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though smax < sy (yield strength).
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
--Catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and
without warning.
 Types of Fatigue Behavior

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
Sfat

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
28
SAFETY IN FIRE
 Fire triangle – oxygen, heat, fuel – remove one to
prevent or extinguish.
 Heat itself causes burn.
 Fire may endanger the structure – small element usually
burn easily.
 Many material generate toxic fumes when they are
heated.
 Materials often generate smoke, which makes breathing
difficult and tend to cause panic and disorientation as
people try to escape.
 Control by Building and Fire Regulations – escape
DURABILITY
 A material may be said to be durable in any one
situation if it fulfils all its performance requirements,
either for planned lifetime of the building, or for a
shorter defined period where i.e. acceptable
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
 Usually overshadowed by economic or other criteria
when selecting materials
 Need to consider
 Embodied energy
 Recycling potential

 Environmental management