LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

and
or
if…..then
if and only if
not
 Statements
A statement is defined as a declarative sentence that is either
true or false, but not both simultaneously.

Connectives such as and, or, not, and if…then, can be used in

forming compound statements.
 The truth values of the conjunction p and q (p ˄ q).
Conjuction The connective “and” implies “both.”

The truth values of the disjunction p or q (p ˅ q).

Disjunctions The connective “or” implies “either.”

A negation is a statement that is a refusal or

Negation denial of some other statement. Not p or ̴ p
A conditional statement is a compound
Conditional statement that uses the connective if…then.
statement P→Q is read as “p implies q” or “if p then q.”
The statement p is the antecedent, while q is
the consequent
Biconditional A biconditional statement is a combination of
conditional statement and its converse.
statement
P ↔Q is read as “p if and only if q” “p iff q”
The statement p is the hypothesis, while q is the
conclusion
s : John studies.
p : John passes.

This symbol replaces
h : John is happy the word “AND”

John passes AND he is happy

p  h
s : John studies. ~
p : John passes. This symbol negates the
h : John is happy statement it precedes

John does NOT study:

~ s
s : John studies.
p : John passes. 
h : John is happy This symbol replaces
the word “OR”

John studies OR he does NOT pass

s  ~p
s : John studies.
p : John passes.

This symbol replaces
the connective “if … then”
h : John is happy

IF John studies, THEN he passes.

s  p
s : John studies.
p : John passes.

This symbol replaces
h : John is happy
the words “if and only if”

John is happy IF AND ONLY IF John studies.

h  s
TAKE NOTE:


When using the connective

The direction of the arrow

is important.

cause  effect
EXAMPLE: Cause → Effect

s : John studies.
p : John passes.
h : John is happy


John is happy ONLY IF he studies.


John is happy IF he studies.



John is happy IF AND ONLY IF he studies.
 Exercises 1:
and : 
or :  m: Herman takes math
if ...then : h: Herman is happy
a: Herman gets an A
ifandonlyif : b: Herman bribes the teacher
not :~

Herman takes math and he is not happy. m  ~h

If Herman gets an A, then he is happy. a  h

Herman takes math if and only if he

m b

bribes the teacher.
 TAKE NOTE:

(3+5)x2 is different from 3+(5x2)

similarly

l  g  a  is different from l  g   a
When a statement has two or more connectives,
one of the connectives is said to be dominant. This
determines the grouping (placement of parentheses)
A SIMPLE STATEMENT has one verb.

The following four statements are simple:

Today is Friday It is hot

We will swim We will go to a

picnic

f h s p
Now we have two COMPOUND STATEMENTS

Today is Friday and It is hot

We will swim or We will go to a

picnic

f  h s  p
 Finally , we can connect these two compound
statements:

If Today is Friday and It is hot

,then We will swim or We will go to a picnic


Is the dominant
connective. It is
last one placed.
f  h  s  p
and :  Exercises 2:
or : 
if ...then :
l: The teacher likes Herman
ifandonlyif : g: Herman does good work
not :~ a: Herman gets an A

The teacher likes Herman, and if Herman does good work,

then Herman gets an A.

l  g  a

If the teacher likes Herman and Herman does good work,

then Herman gets an A.
l  g  a
(3+5)x2 is different from 3+(5x2)

Without parentheses
we have a convention
to interpret:

3 + 5 x 2

to mean (3) + ( 5 x 2 )
When an arithmetic sentence contains + and  signs and NO
PARENTHESES to indicate otherwise we assume that + is
dominant
 There is a similar convention in logic:

If a statement contains two or more connectives and there are

NO PARENTHESES to show you how to group symbols, then
we will agree that the DOMINANT CONNECTIVE is whatever is
highest on this chart:




~
 r= I will rain.
Exercises:
m = we will go to a movie.

 s = we will swim.

 If it rains then we go to a movie and if it

doesn’t rain, then we swim.


(r  m)  (~r s)
~ In this statement, the parentheses are
necessary because “and” is dominant
 Exercises:
f= Herman will fail in Math


r = His life will be ruined
s =. Herman will study.


If Herman does not study, then he will fail math
and his life will be ruined.
~
~s  f  r

Because 
is the dominant
connective, the parentheses
are correctly placed…BUT …
they are unnecessary

 If Herman does not study, then he will fail math
and his life will be ruined.

 ~s  f  r

~ Because this means

~s  f  r
 Interpret the following statement:


 ~p  q  r  ~s  r

~
This is highest
on the chart.
This is dominant
1. Let P be “ The coffee is Maxwell House” , let q be “ The coffee is hot” and let r
be “ the coffee is strong. Give a simple verbal sentence which describes each
of the following statements.
a.~ p i. ~ ~ q l. ~ ̴q ˄ r
b.P ˄ q j. (p ˄ ̴q) →p m. ~p → ( r ˄ ~q)
c. P v q k. q→ ( r ˄ ~p) n. q ↔ (p v ~q)
d.q ↔ p
e.p → ~q
f. q v ~p
g.~p ˄ ~q
h.p ↔~q
 Exercises. Give the Verbal sentence of the following statements
p: cucumbers are green.
q: cucumbers are vegetables.
a. p ^ q d. p v q

Let p “ Today is Friday”, let q be “ It is raining”, let r be “ I

am going to a movie” and let s be “I am not going to the
basketball game”.
2. Let p be “ The sun is shining”, let q be “ It is
raining” and let r “ The ground is wet”. Write each
of the following statements in symbolic form using
p, q and r.

a. If it is raining, then the sun is not shining

b. It is raining and the ground is wet
c. The ground is wet if and only if it is raining and the sun is not shining
d. Either the sun is shining or it is raining
e. The ground is not wet
f. If The sun is shining, then the ground is not wet
g. The ground is not wet if and only if it is not raining
h. If the sun is shining and it is raining, then the ground is wet
i. Either it is raining or the ground is wet, then the sun is shining