 Defination:

Physically :
Glass may physically
glass be defined as a rigid,
undercooled liquid having no definite melting
point and a sufficiently high viscosity greater
than 10^12 Pa.s to prevent crystallization.
Chemically:
Glass is chemically defined as the union of
the non volatile inorganic oxides resulting
from the decomposition and fusion of alkali
and alkaline earth compounds, sand and other
glass constituents, ending in a product with
random structure.
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 Glass, chemically, is actually more like a liquid, but at
room temperature it is so viscous or 'sticky' it looks
and feels like a solid.

 At higher temperatures glass gradually becomes softer

and more like a liquid. It is this latter property which
allows glass to be poured, blown, pressed and moulded
into such a variety of shapes.
 Glass is a hard material normally fragile and transparent common
in our daily life. It is composed mainly of sand (silicates, SiO2)
and an alkali.

 These materials at high temperature (i.e. molten viscous state)

fuse together; then they are cooled rapidly forming a rigid
structure, however not having enough time to form a crystalline
regular structure.
 Depending on the final use and application the
composition of the glass and cooling rate will vary to
achieve the adequate properties for the specific
application.

 Fusion of sand (SiO2), soda (Na2CO3) & lime (CaO)

that produces a transparent solid when cooled.
History
 Glass technology has evolved for 6,000 years
 A most important development in glass
technology was the use of a blow pipe
 The first glass was coloured because of the
presence of various impurities such as oxides of
iron and chromium. Virtually colourless glass was
first made some 1,500 years ago.
 Today many products of glass are made in fully
automatic processing lines
 Although glass is one of the oldest materials, its
properties are unique and not yet fully understood.
Applications
 Chemistry
 Pharmacy
 Electrical and electronics industries
 Optics industries
 Construction and lighting industries
Major constituents
 Silica sand
 Soda ash
 Lime stone
 Dolomite
 Feldspathic materials
 Lead oxide
 Boric acid
 Crushed glass
Common glasses
 Lead- glass
 Soda-lime- glass (commercial glass)
 Borosilicate glass
 Lead glass
 Lead glass is composed of 54-65% SiO2, 18-38% lead oxide
(PbO), 13-15% soda (Na2O) or potash (K2), and various
other oxides. When the content of PbO is less than 18% is
known as crystal glass.
 - In moderate amounts lead increases durability;
 - In high amounts it lowers the melting point and decreases
the hardness giving a soft surface;
 - In addition it has a high refractive index giving high
brilliance glass.
 These two last properties make it appropriate for decorating
purposes.
 Glass with high lead oxide contents (i.e. 65%) may be used
as radiation shielding glass because lead absorb gamma rays
and other forms of harmful radiation, for example, for
nuclear industry. As with soda-lime glass, lead glass will not
withstand high temperatures or sudden changes in
temperature.
Commercial glass or Soda-lime glass:
 This is the most common commercial
glass and less expensive. The composition
of soda-lime glass is normally 60-75%
silica, 12-18% soda, and 5-12% lime. A low
percentage of other materials can be
added for specific properties such as
coloring. It has light transmission
appropriate to be use in flat glass in
window.
 It has a smooth and nonporous surface
that allows glass bottles and packaging
glass to be easily cleaned.
 Soda-lime glass containers are virtually inert, resistant to
chemical attack from aqueous solutions so they will not
contaminate the contents inside or affect the taste.
 Whereas pure glass SiO2 does not absorb UV light, soda-lime
glass does not allow light at a wavelength of lower than 400 nm
(UV light) to pass.
 The disadvantages of soda-lime glass are that is not resistant to
high temperatures and sudden thermal changes. For example,
everybody has experienced a glass breaking down when pouring
liquid at high temperature, for example to make tea.
 Some of the use of soda-lime glass is primarily used for bottles,
jars, everyday drinking glasses, and window glass.
Borosilicate glass:

 Borosilicate glass is mainly composed of silica (70-80%),

boric oxide B2O3 (7-13%) and smaller amounts of the alkalis
(sodium and potassium oxides) such as 4-8% of Na2O and
K2O, and 2-7% aluminum oxide (Al2O3).
Boron gives greater resistance to thermal changes and
chemical corrosion.
It is suitable for industrial chemical process plants, in
laboratories, in the pharmaceutical industry, in bulbs for
high-powered lamps, etc. Borosilicate glass is also used in the
home for cooking plates and other heat-resistant products. It
is used for domestic kitchens and chemistry laboratories; this
is because it has greater resistance to thermal shock and
allows for greater accuracy in laboratory measurements when
heating and cooling experiments.
Types of special glass include :
 Vitreous silica
 Aluminosilicate glass
 Alkali-barium silicate glass
 Technical glass
 Glass ceramics
 Optical glass
 Sealing glass
 Float glass
 Bullet proof glass
 Fuzed quartz
  Recently developed forms of glass:
 Safety glass, constructed of two pieces of plate glass
join by a plastic to prevent the glass from scattering
when broken.
 Fiberglass made from molten glass formed into
continuous filaments that is used for fabrics or
electrical insulation

Foam glass made by trapping gas bubbles in glass to

produce a spongy material for insulating purposes.
 Foam glass fiber glass
Glass Manufacturing
Commercially produced glass can be classified as soda-lime, lead,
fused silica, borosilicate, or 96 percent silica. Soda-lime glass, since it
constitutes 77 percent of total glass production, is discussed here.
Soda-lime glass consists of sand, limestone, soda ash, and cullet
(broken glass).
The Manufacture of such glass is in four phases:
Preparation of raw material

Melting in a furnace

Forming

Finishing.

The products of this industry are flat glass, container glass, and pressed
and blown glass. Procedures for manufacturing glass are the same for
all products except forming and finishing.
1 Raw material:
 Natural Resources
 Silica sand 72%
 Soda Ash 17%
 Lime 5%
2 Chemical Reactions:
 The chemical reaction involved may be summarized as,
 Na2CO3 + αSiO2 → Na2O.αSiO2 + CO2
 CaCO3 + β SiO2 → CaO.βSiO2 + CO2
 Na2SO4 + CSiO2 → COSiO2.Na2O

 The last reaction may take place as in equations
 Na2SO4 + C → Na2CO3 + CO
 2Na2SO4 + C → 2Na2SO3 + CO2
 Na2SO3 + CSiO2 → Na2OCSiO2 + SO2




 Manufacturing process
 FOLLOWING ARE THE STEPS FOR THE
MANUFACTURING OF GLASS:

1. MELTING:
2. SHAPING AND FORMING:
3. ANNEALING:
4. FINISHING:

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 MANUFACTURING OF GLASS
 MELTING:
Based on the type of the glass suitable glass manufacture materials
are selected. Raw materials are reduced in size by crushing and grinding.
Raw materials are now subjected to melting in furnace.
 POT FURNACE.
 TANK FURNACE.
 Pot furnace:
For special glasses like optical glass. Raw materials are melted in pot
furnace made of ceramic material capacities varying from 1-2 tons and
is used for small production batches. The manufactured of high
quality glass such as optical and mirror glass & small quantities of
specialty glass

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Pot Furnace
 MANUFACTURING OF GLASS
 TANK FURNACE:
Molten glass is obtained by melting the raw
materials in 1350-1400 ton capacity regenerative tank
furnace and can be used in continuous processes.
During melting of raw materials various reactions
occur at various temperatures.
Chemical reactions :
Na2CO3 +aSiO2 Na2O.aSiO2+CO2
CaCO3+bSiO2 CaO.bSiO2+CO2
Na2SO4+cSiO2+C Na2O.cSiO2+SO2+CO

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Tank Furnace
 MANUFACTURING OF GLASS
SHAPING OR FORMING :
 Blowing
 Pressing
 Casting
 Rolling
 Drawing
 Floating
 Fourcault process window glass
 Colburn process window glass
 Continuous automatic process plate glass
 Float process float glass
 Glass blowing bottles, light bulbs, tubing

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 MANUFACTURING OF GLASS
 ANNEALING: heat (metal or glass) and allow it to cool slowly, in
order to remove internal stresses and toughen it
To reduce internal stresses; in annealing oven.
 Walls are comparatively thick and cooling will not be even.
 The inner and outer skins of a glass become rigid.
 The still contracting inner portion build up internal stresses.
 Uneven cooling develop substantial stresses in the glass.
 Glass passes through a lehr after removal from the blow mold.
 Lehr is a belt passing through the controlled temperature oven of
about 200mm-300mm per minute. Glass temperature is raised to
565 *C and then gradually cooled to room temperature with all
internal stresses reduced to safe level in about an hour as they
exit.
 Improperly annealed glass are fragile and high breakage.
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  FINISHING:
All types of annealed glass must undergo certain finishing
operations, which are simple and important. These include:
 Cleaning.
 Grinding.
 Polishing.
 Cutting.
 Sandblasting.
 Grading etc.
Although these are not required for every glass object, one
or more is almost necessary.

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Pressing & Blowing
Continuous float process
Glass additive
 Accelerate melting
 Stabilizer
 Improved optical properties
 Remove bubbles
 Color
Accelerate melting
 Fluorine
 Calcium fluoride
 Sodium silicafluoride
Stabilizers
 Increased resistance
 Barium , Lead , Ca , Mg ,Zn oxides
Improved optical properties
 Rare earth metals
 Thorium
Remove bubbles
 Salts of arsenic &
antimony
Color
 Salts of chromium ( green –yellow)
cobalt (red – blue )
cadmium (yellow)
manganese
nickel (black)
selenium ( red)