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Chemical warfare
Venom
Most Consumer Species Feed on Live
Organisms of Other Species (2)
Prey escape/avoidance methods:
Highly developed senses, sight and smell (so do predators!)
Flight response
Run, swim, and fly fast
Protective armor
Shells, bark, spines, thorns
Camouflage to hide
Chemical warfare
Poisons (oleander plants, toads), irritants (poison ivy, bombardier beetle), foul
odor (skunk, stink bug), bad taste (monarch butterfly)
Warning coloration
Mimicry (viceroy butterfly, milk snake)
Deceptive looks
Deceptive behavior
Schooling or herding behaviors
Most Consumer Species Feed on Live
Organisms of Other Species (3)
At the individual level
Predator benefits
Prey species is harmed
At the population level
Predation plays a role in natural selection
Predators take the sick, weak, old, and less fit members of the prey
species.
Epiphytes
Why clumping?
Species tend to cluster where resources are available.
Groups have a better chance of finding clumped resources.
Protects some animals from predators.
Packs allow some to get prey.
Temporary groups for mating and caring for young.
Figure 5.10 Generalized dispersion patterns. The most common pattern is clumps of
members of a population scattered throughout their habitat, mostly because resources
are usually found in patches. Questions: Why do you think the creosote bushes are
uniformly spaced while the dandelions are not?
Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain
Stable (1)
Population size governed by
Births
Deaths
Immigration
Emigration
Genetic Bottleneck
entist.com/articl
e/dn13490
Founder Effect
Under Some Circumstances Population
Density Affects Population Size
Population density – the number of individuals in a
population found in a particular area or volume.
Density-dependent population controls
Predation
Parasitism
Infectious disease
Competition for resources
Density dependent factors tend to regulate a population at a
fairly constant size, often near carrying capacity of an area.
Density independent factors are often abiotic
Severe freeze, hurricanes, fires, pollution, habitat destruction,
wetland loss.
Several Different Types of Population Change
Occur in Nature
Stable
Hovers around K.
Characteristic of species that live in undisturbed tropical rain forests.
Irruptive
Increase to a high peak and then crash
Algae and insects display this type of population changes
Linked to seasonal changes in weather and nutrient availability
Cyclic fluctuations, boom-and-bust cycles
Changes occur in regular cycles
Examples:
Lemming populations rise and fall every 3-4 years
Lynx and snowshoe hare every 10 years
Bubonic plague
Fourteenth century
AIDS
Global epidemic
Ecological succession
Primary succession
Secondary succession
Some Ecosystems Start from Scratch:
Primary Succession
Primary succession begins with a lifeless area where
there is
No soil in a terrestrial system
No bottom sediment in an aquatic system
Early successional plant species, called pioneer, or
colonizing species.
Lichens and mosses Ca
in n als
Midsuccessional plant species po o o
nd cc
s. u r
Herbs, grasses and shrubs, and later trees
Late successional plant species
Other trees
Figure 5.16
Primary ecological succession. Over almost a thousand years, plant communities
developed, starting on bare rock exposed by a retreating glacier on Isle Royal, Michigan
(USA) in northern Lake Superior. The details of this process vary from one site to another.
Question: What are two ways in which lichens, mosses, and plants might get started
growing on bare rock?
Some Ecosystems Do Not Have to Start
from Scratch: Secondary Succession (1)
Secondary succession begins in an area
Disturbed
Removed
Destroyed
Current view
Ever-changing mosaic of patches of vegetation
Mature late-successional ecosystems
State of continual disturbance and change
Living Systems Are Sustained through
Constant Change
Inertia, or persistence
Ability of a living system to survive moderate
disturbances
Resilience
Ability of a living system to be restored through
secondary succession after a moderate disturbance
Tipping point