UNIT-4

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Modeling for approximate analysis
• Approximate analysis are often made at the
preliminary design stage to estimate quickly a
proposed structures stiffness and hence its
feasibility.
• The accuracy of an approximate solution
depends on how closely the approximations
made in forming the model represent the real
structure.
 Sub-divisions…
• Approximate representation of bents.
• Approximate modeling of slabs.
• Modeling for continuum analysis.
Approximate representation of bents.
• Bents consisting of shear walls or of moment
resisting frames can be modeled approximately
provided that the flexural and shear
characteristics of the original assembly are
reproduced in the model.
• An axially concentric shear wall consisting of
relatively uniform regions can be modeled by a
column located on the centroidal axis of the wall.
• The column segments are assigned to have the
inertias and shear areas of the corresponding
regions of the wall.
• When using a column to modal wall the wall
stresses are evaluated by applying the
resulting colum moment and shear to the
appropriate sectional properties of the wall.
• A multibay rigid frame can be modeled very
closely with regard to its lateral behaviour by a
single-bay rigid frame.
• A shear wall can be represented by an
analogous wide column.
 Approximate modeling of slabs.
• In- plane effects: In structures that do not
depend on the transverse bending resistance
of slabs as part of their lateral load resisting
system.
• Tranverse bending effects: Structures with
shear walls coupled by slabs , employ the
tranverse bending stiffness of slabs as part of
the lateral load-resisting system.
 Modeling for continuum analysis.
• In a continuum model , the horizontal beams
and slabs connecting the vertical elements
are assumed to be smeared as a continuous
connecting medium – a continuum having
equivalent distributed stiffness properties.
 Modeling for accurate enalysis
• Plane Frames
• Plane shear walls
• 3D frame and wall structures.
• P-Delta effects
• The assembled model
 Plane frames
• A plane rigid frame , the simplest assembly to be
modeled, has both its column and beam members
represented by beam elements .
• Shear deformation of the members are normally
neglected.
• Results include the vertical and horizontal
displacements, the vertical plane rotations of the
nodes, axial force , shear force and bending moment.
• In a braced frame, the braces are represented by truss
elements , columns by beam elements, and the beams
by beam elements with their end rotations released.
 Plane shear wall.
• Similar to the modeling of walls for an
approximate analysis, a tall slender shear wall
that is not connected by beams to other parts of
the structure Can be modelled for an accurate
analysis by a stack of beam elements.
• Shear walls connected by beams to other parts of
structure can be similarly represented by vertical
stacks of beam elements.
• Walls that are not slender or that have openings
cannot be well represented by simple equivalent
columns and are better represented by an
assembly of plane stress membrane elements.
• If the available structural analysis computer
program does not include plane stress
elements a shear wall can be modelled
alternatively using an analogous frame.
• Non rectangular walls can be modeled using
quadrilateral elements.
 Three dimensional frame and wall
structure.
• The high –rise rigid frame structure has
moment resisting joints, and its columns and
beams are modeled by 3D beam elements.
• These elements deform axially in shear ,
bending and in twist.
• Therefore they have to be assigned an axial
area, two shear areas, two flexural inertias
and a torsion constant.
• However shear deformations are negligible.
 P-Delta effects.
• This refers to the abrupt changes inground
shear, overturning moment and axial
distribution at the base of tall structure.
• This can be included in a single first order
computer analysis of the structure.
• In a non twisting styructure it can be
incorporated in the 2D model by adding a
shear column, connected to the model by rigid
links at the framing levels.
 The assembled model.
• By combining various techniques a complete
3D model can be formed for any high rise
structure consisting of a combination of
frames, walls and cores with beam and slab
conections.
 .

Reduction techniques
• When the detailed model of a high-rise structure
is so large and complex ,it may be preferable to
try to simplify the model provided accuracy is not
compromised.
• The reduction techniques are as follows;
 Symmetry and Antisymmetry.
 Two-dimensional models of nontwisting
structures.
1. Symmetrical structure consisting of parallel
bents.
2. Symmetrical structure with connected
orthogonal bents.
Two –dimensional models of structures that
translate and twist.
Lumping
1. Vertical lumping
2. Lateral lumping
 Wide- column deep- beam analogies
 Symmetry and antisymmetry
• A structure that is symmetric in plan about the
axis of horizontal loading can be analyzed as a
half-structure, to one side of the line of
symmetry, subjected to half the loads.
• The ends of the members cut by the line of
symmetry must be constrained to represent
the omitted half of the structure.
• That is they must be constrained against
rotation and horizontal displacement.
• A structure that is symmetric in plan about the
axis of horizontal loading behave
antisymmetrically about the axis of symmetry.
• In this case only half of the structure to one
side of the axis of symmetry and subjected to
loads of half value needs to be analysed.
 Two –dimensional models of
nontwisting structures.
• The assumption that the floor slabs are rigid in
plane , which permits the horizontal
displacements of all vertical elements at a
floor level to be defined in terms of slabs
horizontal translation and rotation.
• This allows possibility of representing a 3D
structure by 2D model
 Symmetrical structure consisting of
parallel bents
• A structure that is symmetric in plan and
symmetrically loaded does not twist.
• Adding to this the assumption of slab in-plane
rigidity means horizontal displacements of the
vertical components are identical.
• The identity of displacements at the floor
levels can be established in a planar model by
assembling the bents in the same plane
• The constraint can be formed in two ways
• If the analysis program has a dependent node
option ,sets of nodes one in each bent at the
same level can be assigned to have the same
horizontal displacements.
• If the dependent node option is not available
pairs of nodes at the same level in adjacent
levels may be joined by axially rigid pin ended
links.
Symmetrical structure with connected
orthogonal bents.
• structures that consist of an orthogonal
system of connected bens which are
symmetrically located about axis of horizontal
loading.
• Considering half the structure , and assuming
the bents have negligible stiffness ,
perpendicular to their planes, the structures
shear resistance in the direction of loading is
provided by bents
• The vertical interaction cause the
perpendicular bents to act as flanges to the
parallel bent and webs as part of the
structures overall flexural action.
Two- Dimensional models of structures
that translate and twist
• The assumption for analysis that the floor
slabs are rigid in their planes implies that for
an arbitrary origin and a pair of axes parallel
to the orthogonally oriented bents of a
laterally loaded structure.
• The resulting displaced location of any floor
slab can be defined in terms of the rotation of
the slab about the origin and two
displacements parallel to the axis.
• Further for the horizontal equilibrium of any
slab the external X and Y direction forces on
the slab and their combined moment about
the vertical axis through the origin must be in
equilibrium.
 Lumping
• It means the combination of several of structures
similar and similarly behaving components or
assemblies of components in to an equivalent
single component or assembly in order to reduce
the size of the model for analysis.
• The resulting forces in the equivalent component
or assembly are subsequently distributed to give
the forces in the original units.
 Lateral lumping
• Consider an example of symmetrically loaded
structure, therefore it is a non twisting structure,
which consists of two identical shear walls and
three identical rigid frames.
• The walls can be lumped laterally in to a single
wall with twice the inertia of an individual wall.
• The lumped wall and frame can then be
assembled as a planar model and analyzed
relatively simple.
• The resulting forces in the wall and frame of
the lumped structure are divide by two and
three respectively to give the forces in the
individual walls and frames.
 Vertical lumping
• Examples of lumping occur in tall multistorey
coupled wall or rigid frame structures in which
the storey heights and beam sizes are repetitive .
• The detailed model can be simplified by vertically
combining groups of three or five beams in to
single beams at the middle beam location.
• It is advisable to leave the bottom one or two
beams and the top one or two beams of the
structure in their original locations to better
represent the localized effects at the base and
the top.
 Structural elements.
• Any structure is essentially made up of only a
small number of different types of elements:
• Columns
• Beams
• Plates
• Arches
• Shells
• Catenaries
• Many of these elements can be classified
according to form (straight, plane / curve) and
dimensionality (one-dimensional / two-
dimensional/ Three- dimensional)
 Columns

• Columns are elements that carry only axial force

(compression) or both axial force and bending (which is
technically called a beam-column but practically, just a
column).
• The design of a column must check the axial capacity of
the element, and the buckling capacity.
• The buckling capacity is the capacity of the element to
withstand the propensity to buckle. Its capacity
depends upon its geometry, material, and the effective
length of the column, which depends upon the
restraint conditions at the top and bottom of the
column.
• The capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on
the degree of bending it is subjected to, and vice versa.
END CONDITIONS OF COLUMNS
 Beams
A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimension is
much greater than the other two and the applied loads are
usually normal to the main axis of the element.
Beams and columns are called line elements and are often
represented by simple lines in structural modeling.
• cantilevered (supported at one end only with a fixed
connection)
• simply supported (fixed against vertical translation at each
end and horizontal translation at one end only, and able to
rotate at the supports)
• fixed (supported in all directions for translation and rotation
at each end)
• continuous (supported by three or more supports)
• a combination of the above (ex. supported at one end and in
the middle)
• Beams are elements which carry pure bending
only. Bending causes one part of the section
of a beam (divided along its length) to go into
compression and the other part into tension.
• The compression part must be designed to
resist buckling and crushing, while the tension
part must be able to adequately resist the
tension.
• The McDonnell Planetarium by Gyo Obata in
St Louis, Missouri, USA, a concrete shell
structure
• The 630 foot (192 m) high, stainless-clad (type
304) Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri
 Trusses
• A truss is a structure comprising members and connection
points or nodes.
• When members are connected at nodes and forces are
applied at nodes members can act in tension or in
compression.
• Members acting in compression are referred to as
compression members or struts while members acting in
tension are referred to as tension members or ties.
• Most trusses use gusset plates to connect intersecting
elements. Gusset plates are relatively flexible and unable to
transfer bending moments.
• The connection is usually arranged so that the lines of force
in the members are coincident at the joint thus allowing the
truss members to act in pure tension or compression.
• Trusses are usually used in large-span structures, where it
would be uneconomical to use solid beams.
 Plates

• Plates carry bending in two directions. A concrete flat slab is

an example of a plate.
• Plates are understood by using continuum mechanics, but due
to the complexity involved they are most often designed using
a codified empirical approach, or computer analysis.
• They can also be designed with yield line theory, where an
assumed collapse mechanism is analysed to give an upper
bound on the collapse load .
• This technique is used in practice but because the method
provides an upper-bound, i.e. an unsafe prediction of the
collapse load, for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms great
care is needed to ensure that the assumed collapse
mechanism is realistic.
APPLICATION OF FOLDED STRUCTURE
 Shells

• Shells derive their strength from their form,

and carry forces in compression in two
directions.
• A dome is an example of a shell. They can be
designed by making a hanging-chain model,
which will act as a catenary in pure tension,
and inverting the form to achieve pure
compression
JFK INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
Pantheon in Rome..
Sydney Opera House
Norman Foster’s Great Court at
the British Museum in London
FORMS OF Hyperbolic paraboloid
Hyperbolic Paraboloid Gas Station
Free forms.. House in Romania
 Arches

• Arches carry forces in compression in one

direction only, which is why it is appropriate to
build arches out of masonry.
• They are designed by ensuring that the line of
thrust of the force remains within the depth of
the arch.
• It is mainly used to increase the bountifulness
of any structure.
 Tension and compression forces acting on an arch bridge (left) and
suspension bridge (right). Compressive forces are indicated by red arrows and tensile
forces are indicated by blue arrows
 The catenary arch is
important because of
its ability to withstand
weight. For an arch of
uniform density and
thickness, supporting
only its own weight, the
catenary is the ideal
curve.

Robert Hoooke holding a

hanging chain, which forms
a catenary curve
Catenary vs Parabola
 Catenaries

Catenaries derive their strength from their form,

and carry transverse forces in pure tension by
deflecting (just as a tightrope will sag when
someone walks on it).
They are almost always cable or fabric
structures. A fabric structure acts as a
catenary in two directions.
 Dulles international airport in catenary
Stunning kingdom tower shape
in Riyadh,Saudi Arabia
Gateway arch,US Pantheon ,Rome
Casa Mila Sheffield Winter Gardens
 PRESTRESSING
Introduction
• Prestressed concrete is a structural material that
allows for predetermined, engineering stresses to be
placed in members to counteract the stresses that
occur when they are subject to loading.
• It combines the high strength compressive properties
of concrete with the high tensile strength of steel.
• In ordinary reinforced concrete, stresses are carried by
the steel reinforcement, whereas prestressed concrete
supports the load by induced stresses throughout the
entire structural element.
• This makes it more resistant to shock and vibration
than ordinary concrete, and able to form long, thin
structures with much smaller sectional areas to
support equivalent loads.
• Prestressed concrete was patented by San
Franciscan engineer P.H Jackson in 1886
• It is now commonly used for floor beams, piles
and railways sleepers, as well as structures such
as bridges, water tanks, roofs and runways.
• Generally, prestressed concrete is not necessary
for columns and walls, however, it can be used
economically for tall columns and high retaining
walls with high bending stresses.
• Steel used for prestressing may be in the form
of wire or tendons that can be grouped to
form cables. Solid bars may also be used.
• Wire is made by cold-drawing a high carbon
steel rod through a series of reducing dies.
• The wire diameter typically ranges from 3-7
mm and may be round, crimped or indented
to give it better bond strength.
• Similar to wire tendons, strand can be used
individually or in groups to form cables.
Pre-tensioning
• This process involves the stressing of wires or cables by
anchoring them at the end of a metal form, which may be
up to 120 m in length.
• Hydraulic jacks stress the wire as required, often adding
10% to accommodate creep and other pre-stress losses
that may be incurred.
• Side moulds are then fixed and the concrete placed around
the tensioned wires.
• The concrete hardens and shrinks, gripping the steel along
its length, transferring the tension from the jacks to exert a
compressive force in the concrete.
• Once the concrete has reached the desired strength, the
tensioned wires are released from the jacks.
• A typical concrete strength of 28 N/mm2 can be achieved
by 24-hour steam curing, as well as using additives.
• To create shorter members, dividing plates can be placed at
any point along the member which, when removed, permit
the cutting of the wires.
 Post-tensioning
• This follows the reverse method to pre-tensioning,
whereby the concrete member is cast and the
prestressing occurs after the concrete is hardened.
• This method is often used where stressing is to be
carried out on site after casting an insitu component or
where a series of precast concrete units are to be
joined together to form the required member.
• The wires, cables or bars may be positioned in the unit
before concreting, but bonding to the concrete is
prevented by using a flexible duct or rubber sheath
which is deflated and removed when the concrete has
hardened.
• Stressing is carried out after the concrete has been
cured by means of hydraulic jacks operating from one
or both ends of the member.
• Due to the high local stresses at the anchorage
positions it is common for a helical (spiral)
reinforcement to be included in the design.
• When the required stress has been reached, the wire
or cables are anchored to maintain the prestress.
• The ends of the unit are sealed with cement mortar to
prevent corrosion due to any entrapped moisture and
to assist in stress distribution.
• Anchorages used in post-tensioning depend on
whether the tendons are to be stressed individually or
as a group.
• Most systems use a form of split cone wedges or jaws
which act against a form of bearing or pressure plate.
The advantages of prestressed concrete include:
• The inherent compressive strength of concrete is
used to its fullest.
• The special alloy steels used to form the
prestressing tendons are used to their fullest.
• Tension cracks are eliminated, reducing the risk of
the steel components corroding.
• Shear stresses are reduced.
• For any given span and loading condition a
reduction in weight can be achieved from using a
component with a smaller cross section.
• A composite member can be formed by joining
individual precast concrete units together.
The disadvantages of prestressed concrete
include:
• A high degree of workmanship and control is
required.
• Special alloy steels are more expensive than
traditional steels used in reinforced concrete.
• Expensive equipment is needed and there are
complex safety requirements.