Helix Traveling Wave Tube:

The Traveling Wave Tubes or TWTs are non-resonant structure and

hence are wideband device.
The TWTs incorporate a slow wave structure within it and wave
propagates through this slow wave structure with a velocity almost equal
to the velocity of the electrons in the beam.
Due to the interaction time between the traveling RF field and the
electrons in TWTs is much larger than klystron and lasts over the entire
length of the circuit.
Due to the interaction between the RF field and the electrons, a small
amount of velocity modulation is introduced in the electron beam which
later transforms into the current modulation.
The current modulation, in turn, induces a RF current in the circuit and
thus results in amplification.
In general, there are two types of TWTs (i) helix TWT and (ii) coupled cavity
TWT.
Helix TWTs are widely used in broadband applications whereas the
coupled cavities TWTs are widely used for high average power applications
like in radar transmitters.
In coupled cavity TWTs, there is a coupling effect between the cavities
which is absent in the case of klystrons.

Construction:

A basic helix TWT consists of an electron beam, focused by a constant

magnetic field along the electron beam, and a slow wave structure.
The magnet used for focusing the electron beam may be a solenoid or a
permanent magnet.
The disadvantages of the solenoid are that it is relatively bulky and also
consumes power. Therefore this arrangement is suitable for high power
tubes where power output is more than few kW.
For satellite communication and low power applications, where the
weight as well as the power consumption should be minimized, permanent
magnets are used.
In satellite application, to reduce bulk, periodic permanent magnet (PPM)
focusing is used.
In PPM a series of small magnet is located right along the tube with gaps
between successive magnets. The beam slightly defocuses in these gaps
but again refocused by the next magnet.
 In PPM the individual magnets are interconnected.
The slow wave structure is either a helix or a folded back line.
The main advantage of helical slow wave structure is that it is
inherently non-resonant and hence large bandwidth can be obtained
whereas the main disadvantage is that the helical turns in a helix TWT
are in close proximity and hence there is a potential chance of
oscillation to set up due to feedback at high frequency.
The helical structure also limits the use of the tube at high
frequencies because the diameter of the helix must be small to allow a
high RF field at the center which, in turn, presents focusing difficulties,
especially under operating conditions where vibration is possible.
In a helix TWT, the applied RF signal propagates around the turn of the
helix and results in an electric field at the center of the helix along the
helix axis.
The axial electric field propagates with a velocity close to the product of
the ratio of the helix pitch to helix circumference and the velocity of the
light.
In practice, the ratio is so adjusted that the velocity of the axial electric
field becomes almost equal to the velocity of the electrons in free space.
More precisely, the DC velocity of the electrons is maintained slightly
higher than the phase velocity of the travelling wave.
When the electrons enter the helix tube, an interaction takes place
between the moving axial electric field and the moving electrons.
As a result of this interaction, the electrons transfer a net energy to the
wave on the helix and signal amplification takes place.
Energy amplification:

Assume three electrons are entering the helix at three different instants.
The first electron enters the helix when the RF field is retarding and
hence it will move with a slower velocity, the second electron enters the
helix when the RF field is zero and hence it will move with unchanged
velocity and the third electron enters the helix when the RF field is
accelerating and hence it will move with a faster velocity.
Due to this, the first electron will take more time to reach the collector
than the second and third electron and the third electron will take less time
to reach the collector than the first and second electron.
Since the first electron enters the helix at a before time than the others
and the third electron enters the helix at a later time than the others
therefore the length of the helix can be adjusted so that all the three
electrons can reach the collector at the same time and thus forming a
bunch at the collector end.
 The bunching shifts the phase byp 2 .
As a result of the phase shift, the electron in the bunch encounters a
strong retarding field and energy is delivered to the RF field.

Why attenuator is required?

The mismatch exists between the input and output coupler over a wide
frequency range results in a reflected wave from the output coupler.
At the input, a part of the reflected signal is re-reflected which now
travels towards the load. During this travel, they are amplified by the tube.
The total procedure results in an unwanted oscillation in the circuit.
To get rid of it, an attenuator is placed near the center of the helix.
The bunched electrons emerging from the attenuator induce a new
electric field with the same frequency which, in turn, results in amplified
microwaves signal.
Analysis
If the travelling wave is propagating in the z- direction then the z –
component of the electric field can be expressed as

E z = E1 sin ( wt - bp z )

E1 : Magnitude of the z- component of electric field

bp = w v p :Axial phase constant

The force on the electrons by the axial electric field is

dv
m = -eE1 sin ( wt - bp z )
dt
The velocity of the velocity modulated electron can be assumed to be
v = v 0 + v e cos ( we t + qe )
v 0 :DC electron velocity

v e :magnitude of velocity fluctuation in the velocity modulated electron

beam
we :Angular frequency of velocity fluctuation

qe :phase angle of fluctuation

Substituting the velocity expression in force equation we get
mwe v e sin ( we t + qe ) = eE1 sin ( wt - bp z )

Since for interaction between the electrons and the electric field, the
velocity of the velocity modulated electron beam must be approximately
equal to DC electron beam velocity. Therefore v �v 0 and we can write

z = v0 ( t - t0 )

The force equation, derived above, now becomes

{
mwe v e sin ( we t + qe ) = eE1 sin ( w - bp v 0 ) t + bp v 0 t 0 }
bp = w v p Reveals the magnitude of
the velocity fluctuation of
{
mwe v e sin ( we t + qe ) = eE1 sin bp ( v p - v 0 ) t + bp v 0 t 0 }
the electron beam is
Comparing both sides
eE1 directly proportional to
qe = bp v 0 t 0 we = bp ( v p - v 0 ) ve =
mwe
the magnitude of the axial
electric field
The above analysis neglects the space charge effect.
If the space charge effect is considered then the electron velocity, charge
density, current density and the axial electric field can be written as

v = v 0 + v1e jwt -gz r = r0 + r1e jwt - gz

J = -J0 + J1e jwt - gz E z = E1e jwt -gz

g = a e + jbe :propagation constant of the axial waves

negative sign is
attached to insure For a small signal
that is positive in the J = rv �r0 v 0 + ( r0 v1 + r1v 0 ) e jwt -gz
negative z – direction

Where we have assumed r1v1 �0

Comparing both expressions of “J’ we get

-J0 = r0 v 0 J1 = r0 v1 + r1v 0
The force equation can be written as
dv �� dz �� -e m
m
dt
= -eE1e jwt -gz m� +
��
t dt �
z�� ( )
v 0 + v1e jwt -gz = -eE1e jwt -gz v1 =
jw - gv 0
E1

dz
From the law of conservation where we have substituted = v0
dt
we can write
ur r �r gJ1 gJ1
�.J + =0 r1 = = - j
�
t jw w
where we have substituted -J0 = r0 v 0
Therefore
�- e m � � gJ1 � w e J0
J1 = r0 v1 + r1v 0 = r0 � E1 �+ �
-j v
�0 = j E1
w - g w ( jw - gv 0 )
2
�j v 0 �� � v 0 m

If the magnitude of the axial electric field is uniform over the cross –
sectional area of the electron beam then the spatial electric current will
be proportional to the DC current I0 with the same proportionality
constant for J and J and hence can be written as
1 0

w e I0 e beI0
i= j E = j E1
v 0 m ( j w - gv 0 ) 2 mv 0 ( jbe - g )
1 2 2

be = w v 0 :phase constant of the velocity

modulated electron beam
 mv 02
Substituting = 2V0 in the current expression, derived above, we get
e
beI0
i= j E1 known as “electronic equation”
2V0 ( jbe - g )
2

The convection current in the electron beam induces an electric field in

the slow wave circuit which is added to the field, already present in the
circuit. As a result, the circuit power increases with distance.

To study the coupling let us assume the slow wave helix as a distributed
lossless transmission line, as shown
Using the transmission line equations -gI = - jwCV + gi -gV = - jwLI

Using the above equations we can write g V = -w LCV - jwgLi

2 2

In the absence of the convection current “i”, the propagation constant

and characteristic impedance of the line will be equal to that of a lossless
transmission line and can be expressed as,

g 0 = jw LC Z0 = L C

Therefore,
L gg 0 Z0i
g V = -w LCV - jwgLi = g V - gjw LC
2 2 2
i = g 02 V - gg 0 Z 0i V=-
0
C g 2 - g 02
Therefore,
�
V �� gg 0 Z0i � g 2 g 0 Z0i
known as circuit equation
E1 = - =- � - �= - 2
�z z � g 2 - g 02
� � g - g0
2

beI0
i= j E1 g 2 g 0 Z0beI0
2V0 ( jbe - g ) (g ) ( jb - g)
2 2
2
-g 2
0 e = -j
2V0
 The above equation is a fourth order equation of the propagation
constant and hence reveals that there are four distinct solutions for the
propagation constant.
Each of these solutions of propagation constant corresponds to a mode
of the travelling wave in the tube.
The exact solution can be found by using numerical techniques.
However, an approximate solution can be found by equating the DC
electron beam velocity to the axial phase velocity of the travelling wave.

To find approximate solution let us assume g 0 = jbe

Substituting the above trial solution we get

{ g - ( jb e )
2 2
} ( j be - g ) 2
= -j
g 2 jbe Z0beI0
2V0
( g - jbe ) ( g + jbe )
3
= 2C3 g 2b2e

where C = �I0 Z0 � 3
� �
4V
� 0 �
Above equation reveals that there are three forward travelling waves that
corresponds to e - jbe z and one backward travelling wave that corresponds to

e jb e z

The propagation constant of the forward travelling waves can be

approximated as g = jbe - be Cd where Cd = 1

Substituting the above trial solution we get

( jbe - beCd - jbe ) ( jbe - beCd + jbe ) = 2C3be2 ( jbe - beCd )
3 2

Cd = 1

1 �p �
�p � + 2np �
1 �
�
�
- j� + 2np � 3 �
� - j�
2 �
where n = 0, 1 and 2
d = ( - j) 3 =�
e �2 �
�=e
3

� �
5p 3p
-j
Therefore p -j 3 1
d1 = e
-j
6
=
3
-j
1 d2 = e 6
=- -j d3 = e 3
=j
2 2 2 2
To find the fourth root we need to substitute g = - jbe - be Cd4

Substituting the above trial solution we get

d 4 = - jC2 4
( - j2be - be Cd4 ) ( -be Cd 4 ) ( - jbe - be Cd 4 )
3 2
= 2C 3
b 2
e
Cd = 1

Therefore the propagation constants can be written as

�3 1� 3 � C�
g1 = jbe - be Cd1 = jbe - be C � - j �= -beC + jb e �
1+ �
�2 2 � 2 � 2�
� �
� 3 1� 3 � C�
g 2 = jbe - be Cd2 = jbe - be C �
- - j �= be C + jb e �
1+ �
� 2 2 � 2 � 2�
� �
g 3 = jbe - be Cd3 = jbe - be Cj = - jbe ( 1 - C )

� C2 � � C3 �
g 4 = - jbe - be Cd 4 = - jbe - be C �
-j �= - jbe �
1- �
� 4 � � 4 �

g is a forward wave and its amplitude grows exponentially with

1
distance. This wave propagates at a phase velocity slightly lower than the
electron beam velocity and energy flows from the electron beam to the
wave.
 g is a forward wave and its amplitude decays exponentially with
2
distance. This wave propagates at the same phase velocity of the growing
wave however now the energy flows from the wave to the electron beam.
 g is a forward wave and its amplitude remains constant with distance.
3

This wave propagates at a phase velocity slightly higher than the electron
beam velocity and no energy transfer takes place between the electron
beam and the wave.
g is a backward wave and its amplitude remains constant with
4
distance. This wave propagates at a phase velocity slightly higher than
the electron beam velocity and no energy transfer takes place between
the electron beam and the wave.
To calculate the gain of the amplifier we will assume that the load is
perfectly matched and there is no backward wave. Therefore the total circuit
voltage can be written as,
3
V ( z ) = V1e -g1z
+ V2 e - g2z
+ V3 e - g3 z
= �Vn e -gn z
n =1

The input current can be written as

beI0 beI0 ��V� beI0 gV
i= j E1 = j -
� �=j
2V0 ( jbe - g ) 2V0 ( jbe - g ) Z � 2V0 ( jbe - g ) 2
2 2
��

g = - jbe - be Cd 4

beI0 ( jbe - be Cd ) V b2eI0 ( 1 + jCd ) V I0 ( 1 + jCd ) V I0 V

i= j =j 2
=- �-
2V0 ( jbe - jbe + be Cd ) 2V0 b2e C2 d2 2V0 C2 d2 2V0 C2 d2
2

3
V ( z ) = �Vn e-gn z
n =1

3
I V
i ( z ) = -� 0 2 2n e - gn z
n =1 2V0 C dn
The input fluctuating component of velocity of the total wave can be written
as,
g = jbe - be Cd
v1 =
-e m
E1 =
-e m ��
-
V� e
= -
gV v 02 ( jbe - be Cd ) V
�� � v1 = -
jw - gv 0 jw - gv 0 � z � m jw - gv 0 2V0 jw - jbe v 0 + beCdv 0
2eV0
v0 =
m be = w v 0
3
v 0 Vn - gn z
v1 ( z ) = -�j e v1 �- j
v0 V
n =1 2V0 C dn 3 2V0 Cd
V ( z ) = �Vn e -gn z
n =1

If we consider the input is at then the input voltage, input current and the
fluctuating component of velocity of the total wave can be written as,

V ( 0 ) = V1 + V2 + V3

I0 �V1 V2 V3 �
i( 0) = - � + + �
2V0 C2 �d12 d22 d32 �

v 0 �V1 V2 V3 �
v1 ( 0 ) = - j � + + �
2V0 C �d1 d2 d3 �
Solving the above equations with i ( 0 ) = 0 and v1 ( 0 ) = 0 we get
V ( 0)
V1 = V2 = V3 =
3
Since the growing wave increases exponentially with distance then at a
sufficiently large distance it will dominate other modes. Therefore
neglecting the other modes we get

V ( 0) �3 � � � C ��
V ( L ) = V1e -g1L = exp � beCL �
exp jbe �
1+ �L�
3 �2 � �� � 2 �
� �

beL = 2pL l Ll = L l e b e = 2p l e

V ( 0)
V ( L) =
3
exp ( ) �
3pL l C exp �j2pL l �
�
�
� C�
1+ �
�
� 2�
V ( 0)
Therefore the amplitude of the output voltage is, V ( L ) =
3
exp ( 3 pL l C )
The output power gain is

A p = 10log10
V ( L)
2

= 20log10
exp ( 3pL l C ) = -9.54 + 47.3L l C dB
V ( 0) 3
The above equation reveals that there is an initial loss of 9.5532 dB at the
circuit input. The loss results from the fact that the growing wave voltage is
only one third of the total input voltage. The equation also reveals that the
net power gain is proportional to the electrical length of the slow wave
structure and gain parameter (C) of the circuit.

The peak output power of a single helix TWT is limited to about 3 kW due
to the current handling capability of the helix structure.
For low input power, the small signal gain of the helix TWT is almost
constant.
If the input power is increased the output power does not increase in
proportion, but instead attains a maximum value and then starts
decreasing.
The point, at which maximum output power is obtained, is called a
saturation point and the corresponding gain is called saturation gain.
In practice there is a range of input voltage over which the output
remains in saturation.
This range defines the overdrive capability of the TWT.
From performance point of view there are two types of TWTs, namely,
(i) low power low noise and (ii) high power fairly noise.
The noise level of the former ranges from 4 dB to 8 dB over the
frequency range 0.5 GHz to 16 GHz.
The typical output power for this tubes ranges from 5 mW to 30 mW.
Medium power CW TWTs can provide output power in the range 5 mW
to 25 mW for frequencies upto 40 GHz with noise figure around 25 dB.
High power TWTs can operate over the frequency range 0.5 GHz – 95
GHz and can produce CW output power of 250 kW at 3 GHz or pulsed
output power of 10 MW at 3 GHz.
High power TWTs are generally coupled cavity in nature.
Low noise TWTs are widely used as RF amplifiers in broad band
microwave receivers and repeater amplifier while CW high power tubes
are used in tropospheric scatter links due to their high power and large
bandwidth.
They can also be used in radar for jamming purpose.
Pulsed TWTs are used in airborne and ship borne radars, as well as
high power ground based radars.
Due to their long tube life, TWT is also used as power output tube in
communication satellite.
Magnetron Introduction
In crossed field tubes, the DC magnetic field and DC electric fields are
perpendicular to each other.
In a crossed field tube the electrons facing a favorable electric field,
are accelerated by the electric field and hence moves faster.
However as their velocity is increased, they are bent more towards the
cathode by the magnetic field and subsequently return to the cathode.
On the other hand the electrons, facing an unfavorable field are
decelerated and moves with a slower velocity after giving up some
energy to the field.
Due to the reduced velocity they are bent less by the magnetic field
and hence moves towards the anode.
The crossed field tubes are also known as M – type tubes after the French
TPOM (tubes á propagation des ondes á champs magnétique or tubes for
propagation of waves in a magnetic field).
Magnetron Oscillators
In general magnetrons can be classified into three categories: (i) split
anode magnetron, (ii) cyclotron – frequency magnetron and (iii)
travelling wave magnetrons.
The split anode magnetron uses a static negative resistance between
the anode segments and generally operates at frequencies below
microwave range whereas the cyclotron frequency magnetron operates
under the synchronization between the RF field and a periodic
oscillation of electrons in a direction parallel to the field.
The cyclotron frequency magnetrons can operate at microwave
frequencies, however with low output power and low efficiency.
The travelling wave magnetrons works on the interaction of electrons
with a travelling RF field of linear velocity and are customarily referred
as magnetrons.
They can be classified as cylindrical magnetron, planar or linear
magnetron, coaxial magnetron, voltage tunable magnetron, inverted
coaxial magnetron and frequency agile magnetron.

Cylindrical magnetron:

In cylindrical magnetron several

reentrant cavities are used.
A DC voltage is applied between the
cathode and the anode and a magnetic
flux density is applied in perpendicular
to the electric field.
Under such circumstances the
electrons, emitted from the cathode,
follow cycloidal paths
For self consistent oscillation the total
phase shift around the anode must be
equal to 2np where “n” is an integer.
Therefore, the phase difference
between the successive cavities must be
equal to 2np 8 = np 4 .
Best result is obtained when n = 4, i.e.,
the phase difference between the
adjacent cavities is p . Such condition is
called a Pi – mode of operation.
The RF fields also exist inside the
resonator but since they have no
significant contribution to the
magnetron operation, they have been
omitted.
When the RF field is absent, the path followed by the electrons “a” and
“b” is shown by the dotted line. However, this path is modified in the
presence of a RF field.
For formal operation of the tube, the anode voltage and magnetic field
is so adjusted that the electron “a” gains a particular tangential velocity
with which it travels from position “1” to “2” at a time equal to the half of
the time period of the RF field.
Therefore when it reaches the point “2” the electric field in the cavity
has reversed it polarity from that shown.
Thus if the electron “a” faced a retarding field at position “1” then it
also faces a retarding field at position “2”.
As a result the electron “a” continues to be slowed down by
transferring energy to the RF field and moves towards the anode.
Finally the electron strikes the anode surface after delivering major
part of its energy, gained from anode potential, to the RF field and thus
amplifying it.
If the electron starts from the cathode at a favoring RF field, e.g.,
electron “b”, then it is accelerated by the field and gain velocity.
However, due to the presence of the magnetic field it is deflected more
sharply than in the absence of the RF field and quickly returns to the
cathode causing back heating of the cathode. In practice 5% of the
anode power is lost in this manner.
These electrons are undesirable as it also absorbs energy from the RF
field.
However, such electrons do not stay long in the interaction region and
hence does not have much time to absorb energy from the RF field.
In addition to the above there is also a focusing mechanism which
keeps the working electrons, i.e., electrons “a”, in step with the field in
the interaction space. This helps the working electrons to deliver
maximum possible energy to the RF field.
The electron at the position “A” is in the vicinity of positive anode and
hence the component of the RF fields aids the radial DC field whereas
the electron, at position “C”, is in the vicinity of the negative anode and
hence the RF field opposes the radial DC field.

Therefore the electrons at the position

“A” will face a favorable field and will be
accelerated while the electrons at the
position “C” will face an unfavorable field
and will be decelerated.
However if the slower electrons are emitted before the faster electrons
then there is a fair chance for the faster electrons to catch the slower
electrons, emitted earlier.
This causes bunching of electrons around the electron whose relative
position is indicated at “B”.
The bunching procedure in magnetrons is also known as phase
focusing and is similar to velocity modulation.

The selective grouping of the electrons,

results in a spoke shaped space charge cloud
of electrons.
In practice there will be one spoke per
cavity for Pi – mode operation.
These spokes rotate at an angular velocity equivalent to 2 poles per
cycle in the clockwise direction to keep up with the RF phase changes
between adjoining anode poles.
It is not difficult to imagine that the electric field itself is rotating in the
clockwise direction at the same speed as the spokes.

Because of the rotating RF fields such magnetrons are also called as

travelling wave magnetron.
It may be noted that the electric field, existing in the interaction space of
the magnetron, corresponds to the rotating field in the air gap of a poly-
phase electric machine. The pi – mode corresponds to a single phase
system whereas the other modes correspond to various poly-phase
arrangements.
In magnetron the RF magnetic flux lines pass through the cavities and
are parallel to the cathode axis whereas the RF electric field lines are
concentrated across the coupling slots and also fringe out to the
interaction space in the transverse direction.
In practice a magnetron, consisting of “N” resonant coupled cavities, can
support N resonant frequencies or modes.
If the magnetic flux density is assumed to be z- directed then the equation
of motion of the electrons in a cylindrical magnetron can be written as
2
d2r �df � e e df
- r =
�dt � m E r - rB z
dt 2 � � m dt

1 d �2 df � e dr d �2 df � 1 d 2
r
r dt �
�= B
� dt � m dt
z r
dt �
� dt �
= w ( )
� 2 c dt r

where wc = eBz m and is called cyclotron angular frequency.

2 df 1
Integrating the last equation we get dt 2 wc r + C
= 2
r

where C is an integration constant.

df
At r = a, where “a” is the radius of cathode cylinder, = 0 . This gives
dt
1
C = - wc a2
2
df 1 � a 2 �
Substituting the expression of integration constant we get = wc �
1- �
dt 2 � r 2 �
Since magnetic field does no work on the electrons, the kinetic energy of
the electrons can be written as

1 2
�dr � �df � 2e
2
mv 2 = eV v = v + v = � �+ �
2 2 2
r �= V
2 r f
dt
� � � �dt m
Now at r = b, where “b” is the radius of edge of the anode, V = V and dr = 0
0
dt
. Therefore when the electrons just graze the anode, the last two equation
becomes df 1 � a2 �
2
�df � 2e
= wc �
1- � and b � �=
2
V0
dt 2 � b2 � �dt � m

Using the above two equations we get

2 2 2 8e
2�df � 2 �1 � a2 � b2 2 � a 2 � 2e
� V0 wc = eB z m
b � � = b � wc �
1- 2 �=
� wc �
1- 2 � = V0 m
�dt � �2 � b �
� 4 � b � m wc =
� a2 �
1- 2 �
b�
� b �

m 8e 8m
V0 V0
B0c = e m = e
It is called Hull cut-off magnetic equation. � a2 � � a2 �
b�1- 2 � 1- 2 �
b�
� b � � b �
If B0 > B0c for a given V0 then the electrons will not be able to reach the
anode and will return to the cathode.

The last can also be written as,

8m
V0c
B0 = e 2
e 2 2 � a2 �
� a2 � V0c = 1- 2 �
B0 b �
1- 2 �
b� 8m � b �
� b �

Above equation is called Hull cut-off voltage equation.

If V0 < V0c for a given B0 then the electrons will not be able to reach the
anode and will return to the cathode.

Since the electrons follow a cycloidal path, the outward centrifugal force is
equal to the pulling force and we can write, mv 2 R = evB
“R” is the radius of the cycloidal path and “v” is
the tangential velocity of the electron.
The cyclotron angular frequency, therefore, can be written as wc = v R = eB m
2p 2pm
The period of one complete revolution is T = =
wc eB

Since the slow wave structure is reentrant in nature, oscillation will occur
when the total phase shift around the structure is an integral multiple of

2p
.
Thus, if there are “N’ reentrant cavities in the anode structure the phase
shift between two anode cavities can be expressed as,

2pn
fn = where “n” is an integer.
N
It has been already mentioned that best result is obtained when n = 4, i.e.,
or in the “pi’ mode for which fn = p

For the pi – mode operation oscillation starts at a beam voltage

w 2
V0h =
N
( )
b - a 2 B0
This is known as Hartree voltage.
For the same B if we move from n = N 2 mode to n = �N - 1� , the
0 �2 �
� �
corresponding voltage required for sustaining the oscillation also increases.
If we now move to further lower modes, such a time will come when the
electron emitted from the cathode will graze the anode without any
oscillation. This gives the region of steady anode current.
The performance of a magnetron can also be explained in terms of the
characteristic curve.
Let the magnetic flux density is kept sufficiently high and anode
voltage is increased from the low values.
For low value, the anode current is cut-off and no oscillation is
obtained.
When n = N 2 line is reached f becomes equal to p and pi – mode
oscillation builds up.
At this point the space charge cloud encircles the cathode relatively
slowly since only N 2 oscillations are available for the electron to make
a complete revolution.
For higher anode voltage the electrons rotate faster and the
synchronization with the resonator field is lost and the oscillation stops.
At a further higher values of anode voltage synchronization is
established for the next higher order mode �N �and oscillation again
� - 1�
starts. �2 �

In this mode the space charge cloud revolves faster than before since
it must make a complete revolution in one less time period.
As the anode voltage is further increased alternate regions on “no
oscillation” and “oscillation” of successively lower mode numbers
appears until the region of steady anode current is reached and all
possibility of oscillations are lost.
It should be noted that for low values of magnetic flux density or
anode voltage the V - B combination reaches the cut – off parabola
0 0

before any synchronization can occur and no oscillation takes place.

 The particular anode voltage or magnetic flux density for which the
combination reaches the cut – off parabola before any oscillation can
happen, keeping the other parameter constant, is called Hull cut – off
voltage or Hull cut – off magnetic flux density.

If “L” be the mean separation of the cavities then the phase constant of
the fundamental mode field is given by, b = 2pn
0
NL
The fundamental f - component of electric field can be obtained by solving
the Maxwell equation with proper boundary conditions and is given by,

Ef0 = jE1e (
j wt -b0 f )
where E1 is a constant.

The travelling field of the fundamental mode travels around the structure
with an angular velocity df w
=
dt b0
Interaction between the field and electrons occur when the cyclotron
frequency of the electrons is equal to the angular frequency of the field.
Therefore,

df
wc = b0 The efficiency and power output of a
dt
magnetron depends on the resonant
structure and DC power supply.
In the equivalent circuit of a resonator
of a magnetron Y is the electronic
e

admittance, V is the RF voltage across the

vane strips, C is the capacitance at the
vane strips, L is the inductance of the
resonator, G is the conductance of the
r

resonator and G is the load conductance

per resonator.
The unloaded quality factor of the resonator is given by, Qun = w0 C Gr

where w0 is the angular resonant frequency.

The external quality factor is given by Qex = w0 C Gl

w0 C
Therefore the loaded quality factor is Ql =
Gr + Gl

-1
Gl G � Qex �
The circuit efficiency is defined by hc = = l =�
1+ �
Gr + Gl Gex � Qun �

when G ? G maximum efficiency is obtained. However this makes the

l r

tube quite sensitive to load. Therefore the ratio Ql Qex is often chosen to
compromise between high circuit efficiency and frequency stability.

Pgen V0I0 - Plost

The electronic efficiency of magnetron is defined as he = =
Pdc V0I0
Where P is the RF power induced into the anode circuit, P is the power
gen dc

from DC power supply, V0 is the anode voltage, I0 is the anode current

and Plost is the power lost in the anode circuit.

The electronic efficiency can also be written as,

� mw02 � � I0mM12Ql � sin ( bn d 2 )
he = �
1- 2 �
1+
� � where M1 = =1 for small d
� 2eV0b � � bz eNL w0 C �
2
( bn d 2 )
d is the gap factor for the pi – mode operation.

If the frequencies of different modes of a magnetron are very close

then the magnetron has a tendency of mode jumping during the
operation. For example a 3 cm p - mode oscillation, normal for a
particular magnetron, could, spuriously, become a 3.05 cm 3p 4 - mode
oscillation.
This mode jumping can be prevented by using strapping technique. The
straps are basically two rings of heavy gauge that are connected only to
the alternate anode poles.
In Pi – mode operation each ring is at an uniform potential, but in
opposite polarity, and hence behaves as a capacitor and results in a
capacitive loading to the cavities. This capacitive loading reduces the
frequency of this mode.
For other modes the relative phase difference between two strapped
points of the same strapping ring is not zero. This results in a non-
uniform potential along the rings and a current flows through them.
This flow of currents results in an inductive loading to the cavity which,
in turn, raises the frequencies for these modes. The wanted pi – mode is
thus separated from the others.
If the operating frequency of the
magnetron is above 10 GHz then
the realization of strapping
technique becomes extremely
difficult and becomes almost
impossible.
This is because, at high
frequencies the cavities are small
and also more number of cavities
(16 or 32) are required to insure a
suitable RF field in the interaction
space.
These results in a large number of modes that are supported by the
magnetron and strapping cannot prevent mode jumping.
To avoid mode jumping, in such cases, a special anode block, having a
pair of cavity system of quite dissimilar shape and resonant frequency, is
designed.
With such anode geometry the magnetron supports only one resonant
frequency, out of the two corresponding to the two sets of cavity, and
hence mode jumping can be prevented.
Such magnetrons are called Rising Sun magnetron. Strapping is not
required in Rising Sun Magnetron.
In addition to the case of high frequency magnetrons, strapping may
also be unsatisfactory in very high power magnetrons due to the losses
in the straps.
To tune the resonance frequency of a magnetron a tunable resonant
cavity can be coupled to one of the resonant cavities of the magnetrons.
Frequency tuning can also be achieved by using a third strap or tuning
ring (also called C – ring).
By changing the distance of the C – ring from the straps the anode
capacitive loading can be varied which, in turn, changes the operating
frequency.
In contrast to the capacitive tuning, inductive tuning is also possible.

In such case conducting rods

are inserted lengthwise into the
resonators at the region of high
RF magnetic field.
A change in the anode voltage of the magnetron results in a change in
the orbital velocity of the electrons. This, in turn, alters the rate at which
the energy is given up to the anode resonator and the operating
frequency. This is known as frequency pushing.
Magnetrons are also susceptible to frequency variation due to a
change in the load impedance.
This happens regardless of whether these load variations are purely
resistive or reactive, but is more severe in case of reactive load
variations. Such variation in operating frequency with variation in loads
is known as frequency pulling.
The frequency pushing in a magnetron is avoided by using a
stabilized power supply whereas the frequency pulling is avoided by
using a circulator, placed before the waveguide connection at the output
of the magnetron.
During operation, it is often required that the output power of the
magnetron is to be adjusted.
In practice there are several methods that can be used for this
purpose, as below.
Pulsing output power:
This method is common in most of the microwave ovens. In this
method the magnetron is pulsed very slowly, sometimes on for 2 – 5 sec
and then off for 2 – 5 sec, so that the average power delivered in the
load can be controlled.
The timer circuit used for this purpose adds complexity and cost of
the circuit.
Changing anode current:
This is based on the principle that a change in the anode current
results in a change in output power.
The anode voltage – anode current graph reveals that initially the anode
current remains almost zero.
However, after a certain anode voltage, known as Hartree voltage, the
anode current starts to flow and magnetron oscillates.
In this oscillating region a small change in anode voltage corresponds
to a large change in anode current.
The plot of output power and anode current is shown in figure (b). The
anode voltage is also plotted in the same figure.
It reveals that by changing the anode current output power can be
varied in the oscillation region.
Adjusting magnetic flux density:
Output power of a magnetron can be reduced by increasing the
magnetic flux density.
Typically a 10% change in magnetic flux density change the output
power by 60%.
Attenuating microwave energy:
This method is based on the attenuation of microwave energy between
the magnetron and the load and therefore has no effect on the magnetron.
However, it is a mechanical method and is complex and also costly.
Magnetrons are widely used as a source in radar transmitters,
microwave ovens and also for industrial heating.
Domestic microwave oven requires a standard power of 600 W – 900
W at a frequency of 915 MHz or 2450 MHz.
For industrial heating the required power level is in kW level at MHz
frequencies.
A magnetron can deliver up to 40 MW of peak power at 10 GHz with
just 50 kV input voltage. T
he average power output is about 800 kW. The efficiency of magnetron
ranges from 40% to70%.
In practice no other microwave devices can perform the same function
with same size, weight, operating voltage and efficiency.
 Conventional travelling wave magnetrons are widely used to
generate high peak power RF pulses of frequencies as high as 70 GHz.
Beacon magnetrons – a miniaturized version of conventional
magnetrons, can produce a peak output power of 3.5 kW while
exhibiting negligible frequency shift and long life performance under
severe environmental and temperature conditions.
Such magnetrons also have weight less than two pounds and hence
are ideal for the applications where very compact, low voltage source
of pulsed power is required, such as, airborne missile, satellite and
Doppler systems.

In Pi – mode each cavity of the magnetron, along with its input gap, acts
as a short circuited transmission line of quarter wavelength long and
hence has a maximum electric field across the gap. The fields in two
consecutive cavities also are oppositely directed.
Linear magnetron:

If the electric field is along x – axis and

magnetic field is along the z – axis
then the motion of electrons can be
written as

d2 x e� dy �
= - E
�x + B z �
dt 2 m� dt �

d2 y e dx d2 z
= B z and =0
dt 2 m dt dt 2

In practice due to the effect of space charges, the electric field is a non-
linear function of the distance “x” and hence a complete solution of the
above set of equations is very complex. However the second equation
can be integrated directly. This gives,
dy e
= Bz x + C
dt m
If we assume that the electron starts with zero initial velocity then at x =
0, dy = 0 and above equation gives C = 0
dt
dy e
Substituting the value of above integration constant we get = Bz x
dt m
Above equation reveals that the velocity of electron, parallel to electrode
surface, is proportional to the distance of the electron from the cathode
and magnetic flux density.
In practice the distance of the electron from the cathode depends on the
magnetic flux density and on the manner the potential “V” varies with “x”
which, in turn, depends on the space charge distribution, electrode
spacing and anode potential.

If we assume that the space charge is negligible, cathode potential is zero,

anode potential is V then the differential electric field can be written as
0

dV V0 where “d” is the distance between the

Ex = - =-
dx d cathode and anode.
 2
d2 x �e � e V0
Using the last two equation we get 2
+ �m z � m d = 0
B x -
dt � �

The solution of above equation can be written as,

V0 V0
x= 1 - cos ( wc t ) �
�
� � y= wc t - sin ( wc t ) �
�
� �
B z wc d dy e B z wc d
= Bz x
dt m
e
where wc = Bz is the cyclotron angular frequency.
m
2
Further solution of equation d z2 = 0 gives, z = 0
dt
The solutions of x, y, z represents a cycloid generated by a point on a
circle of radius V0 rolling on the plane of the cathode with angular
frequency . Bz wc d
wc
The maximum distance to which the electron moves in a direction normal
to the cathode is given by 2V m
2
0
=d
B z ed
 d2B2z 2m -11
Now let us define a constant K = V = e = 1.14 �10
0

If the electron strikes the anode while if the

K < 1.14 �10 -11 K > 1.14 �10-11
electron return to the cathode.

The Hull cut – off voltage can be

obtained as

1e 2 2
V0c = B0 d
2m
If V0 < V0c , for a given B0 then the electron will not reach the anode.

Similarly the Hull cut – off magnetic flux density can be obtained as
1 2m
B0c = V0
d e
If B0 > B0c , for a given V0 then the electron will not reach the anode.

In a linear magnetron tube the electron beam extends upto a distance “h”
from the cathode. This distance “h” is called hub thickness.
 E 1 dV
If the velocity of the electron in the y – direction is v y then, v y = - x =
B0 B0 dx
1
Now the conservation of energy gives, mv 2y = eV
2
m dV
From the above two equation we get = dx
2eB02 V

m
Integrating above equation we get, 2
2 V = x + C1
2eB0

If we assume that at x = 0, V = 0 then C1 = 0 and above equation modifies as,

eB02 2
V= x
2m

The potential and electric field at the hub surface, i.e., at x = h, is given by
eB02 2 dV eB02 eB02
V ( h) = h and Ex ( h ) = - =- x =- h
2m dx x =h m x =h m

The potential at the anode is given by

d h d d
V0 = - �
E x dx = - � E x dx = V ( h ) - �
E x dx - � E x dx
0 0 h h
Substituting the voltage and current voltage in the above equation we get,
d
eB02 eB02 2 eB02 eB02 � h �
V0 = V ( h ) + � hdx = h + h ( d - h) = d- �
h�
h m 2m m m � 2�
eB 2 1 dV
Substituting E x ( h ) = - 0
h in equation v y = we get,
m B 0 dx
1 dV eB0
v y ( h) = = h
B0 dx m
For synchronization this velocity must be equal to the phase velocity of the
slow wave structure. Therefore, w eB0
= h
b m
eB02 � h � eB02 � h � wB0 d mw2
V0 = d- �
h� V0h = h d - �= -
m � 2� m � � 2 � b 2eb2
w eB0
= h
b m

Above equation is called Hartree anode voltage equation and reveals that
Hartree anode voltage is a function of magnetic flux density and electrode
spacing.