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BASICS OF WELDING

….Conducted & Prepared


by…
Ojha Yogesh
Virendra Pattewale
Swapan Thakar
Welding

A localized coalescence (joining together) of


metals or non-metals produced either by
heating the materials to the welding
temperature, with or without the application
of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone and with or without the use
of filler metal.
Welded Joints
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  ‘T’ Joint Lap Joint
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Butt Joint
 
 
 
 

Edge Joint
Corner Joint
Welding processes
 Fusion welding
 Welding in the liquid state with no pressure
and union is by molten metal bridging
e.g: SMAW, GTAW,SAW,FCAW, MMAW ….
 Solid phase welding
 Carried out below the melting point without
filler additions. The pressure often used and
union is often by plastic flow.
e.g: Forge welding & Friction welding
WELD TYPES

BW- Butt-weld

SW-Socket weld

SOB-Set-on branch

RFD-Reinforced pad

LET- Sockolet, weldolet, latorolet


Butt Joint

 1. Root gap
 2. Root face
 3. Bevel surface
 4. Bevel angle
 5. Included angle
 6. Seam width
 7. Thickness of the plate
Fillet Joint

 1. Throat thickness
 2. Leg length
 3. Joint root
 4. Joint edge
 5. Joint surface
 6. Fusion depth
 7. Seam width
Butt weld & SW - Socket weld
.
Butt weld fittings
Socket weld fittings
.
WELDING POSITIONS
1F
2F
3F 1F 1G

4F
5F
1G 2F 2G
2G
3G
4G
3F
5G 3G

6G
4F 4G
.

.
1-G

2-G 6-G
6-G 5-G
WELDER QUALIFICATION
Qualified In
Tested on Test Details Plate & Pipe over Pipe 2x7/8” Fillet on
Plate 24”OD Groove to 24” OD pipe / plate
Groove
1G 1G 1G 1F
Test Position – 2G 1G,2G 1G,2G 1F,2F
Groove 3G 1G,3G 1G 1F,2F,3F
(ASME Sec.IX
4G 1G,4G 1G 1F,2F,4F
QW-461.9)
3G&4G 1G,3G,4G 1G ALL
2 G, 3 G & 4 G ALL 1G,2G ALL
1F - - 1F
Test Position – 2F - - 2F
Fillet 3F - - 3F
(ASME Sec.IX
4F - - 4F
QW-461.9)
3F&4F - - 3F&4F
Allied processes
 Thermal cutting
 Oxy-fuel gas, plasma, laser cutting

 Gouging

 Air-arc, plasma, oxy-fuel gas

 Surfacing

 Powder and arc spray coating

 Clad welding, hard facing


Electric arc
 Electric arc is sustained electric discharge over a
gaseous path between two poles. The arc current is
carried by ionized gas called plasma.
 Welding arc temperature has been found to the range
between 5000 deg. C to 18000 deg. C depending on the
nature of the plasma and current passing through the arc.
 In covered electrode the max. Temperature is about
6000 deg. C.
 In inert gas shielded arc, the axial temperature can be as
high as 18000 deg. C.
The electric arc

Peak
temperatures
- Cathode
18000 K zone

Anode
zone  Electric discharge between 2
electrodes through a gas

+
Fusion welding
This process involves the partial melting of the two members
welded in the join region. The thermal energy required for this
fusion is usually supplied by chemical or electrical means.

Base metal melt + filler melt

Characteristics of the fusion weld joint


Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)
.

Work piece
Features of electrode coating
 Shielding - decomposes to form gaseous shield for
molten metal.
 Deoxidation - fluxing action removes oxygen and
other atmospheric gases.
 Alloying - provides additional alloying elements
for weld deposit.
 Ionizing - improves electrical characteristics to
increase arc stability.
 Insulating - solidified slag provides insulating
blanket to slow down weld metal cooling rate.
Electrode classification as per
AWS
E XX XX - X

Electrode
Minimum Tensile Strength in thousands psi
Positions in which electrode can be used
Composition of the coating (determines operating
characteristics and recommended electrical current)
Minimum content of alloying elements for low
alloy steels only.
POWER SOURCES
Shielded metal arc welding
process Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded
metal-arc welding process ( also known as
stick welding, because the electrode is in
the shape of a stick).

Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc


welding process. About 50% of all large-scale
industrial welding operations use this process.
Covered electrodes
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Alternative names -
GTAW,TIG (Tungsten
Inert Gas), Argonarc
 Heat source is an
electric arc between a
non-consumable
electrode and the
workpiece
 Filler metal is not added
or is added
independently
GTAW process outline

Inert
Torch gas
Tungsten lead (-)
electrode
Torch Power
Collet
source
Ceramic Gas lens
shroud (optional)
Arc
Filler

Weld metal
Work
Weld pool lead (+)
Process features
 Stable arc at low power (80A at 11V)
 Independently added filler
 Ideal for root runs in pipe or thin sheet
 Low productivity 0.5kg/h manual
 Clean process, no slag
 Low oxygen and nitrogen weld metal
 Excellent profile even for single sided welds
Gas Metal-Arc Welding

Fig : Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process,


formerly known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding.
- torch
Main equipment
- electric power source
- shielding gas source
- wire spool with wire drive control

Equipment required for the GMAW


(Modern Welding (p63))
Heat balance in Arc welding
15 % - heat consumed by core wire of the
electrode.
 SMAW process:

15% - heat consumed by the coating of the


electrode.

15% - heat goes to atmosphere.

55% - heat gets the work piece.


(Out of this 10% of the heat goes to the
atmosphere
at root area and rest will be absorbed by work
Heat balance in Arc welding
 GTAW process

Work piece gets 33% heat

and

Electrode gets 66% heat.

It is vise versa whenever polarity changes.


Preheating
Preheating of the base material is necessary for
the following:
 To minimize the distortion.

 To prevent the cracking of the deposit.

 To prevent cracking of the job.

 To improving ductility of the base material


and HAZ.
 To eliminate hydrogen induced crack.
Post heating
Post heating of the weld material is
necessary for the following:
 To prevent delayed hydrogen diffused
crack
 To improve the performance of structures
subjected to dynamic load.
PWHT – Post Weld Heat
Treatment
PWHT of the weld material is necessary for
the following:

 To reduce the hardness of the weldment and


HAZ.

 To reduce the residual stresses and increasing


the ductility of the weld metal and HAZ.
WELDING DEFECTS
AND

THEIR CAUSES
AND PREVENTION
Definition of Discontinuity
In welding the main objective is to obtain sound, defect-
free welded joints.
Normal welds may contain imperfections
which cause some variation in the normal average
properties of the weld metal. These are called as
discontinues.

Definition of Defects
Whenever such discontinuities exceeds the limit
specified by engineering design, those are called as
defects.
Defects are caused by the following
reasons :

• Use of wrong welding consumables.


• Improper welding parameter.
• Poor workmanship.
• Lack of cleanliness of the welding joint.
Some of the common welding
defects are as follows :
• Slag Inclusion
• Cracks,
• Distortion
• Incomplete penetration
• Porosity and blow holes
• Lack of fusion
• Undercut
Slag Inclusion
Non metallic particles of comparatively large
size entrapped in the weld metal are termed as
slag inclusion.
Slag inclusions are normally detected by
normal non destructive test methods.
To prevent slag inclusion,
following steps are to be
taken:
Use of proper welding consumable
• Keep joint surfaces and bare wires clean
• Avoid undercuts and gaps between weld
passes
Crack
Crack is defined as a discontinuity caused by the
tearing of the metal while in a plastic condition
(hot crack)
or
By fracturing of the metal when cold (cold
crack).
Crack represents a failure under stress of a metal
when it is behaving in a brittle manner.
The main causes of crack :
• Rigidity of the joint.
i.e. joint members are not free to expand or
contract when subjected to welding heat and
subsequent cooling (localized stress).
• Poor ductility of the base metal.
• High S and C % of base metal.
• Improper preheating.
• Fast arc travel speed.
•Electrode with high H2 content.
Prevention of Crack by :
•Using a steel of lower carbon
equivalent
• Higher heat input during welding.
• Preheating.
• Low-hydrogen welding
consumables.
Distortion
Distortion is a serious problem in welding. It creates
difficulties in maintaining correct shape, dimensions and
tolerances of a finished fabrication.
Reason of Distortion: 
•Increase in the volume of metal deposited.
•Unequal heating and cooling of a metallic body during
welding.
•It is also caused by the contraction of the weld-metal during
solidification and cooling to room temperature, they try to
pull the parts together and the result is distortion.
Prevention of Distortion:
• Use as few weld passes as possible.
• Use skip method of welding.
• Balance shrinkage forces with opposing forces
imposed by clamps, jigs and fixtures.
 
Incomplete Penetration
• This defect occurs at the root of the joint when the weld
metal fails to reach it or the weld-metal fails to fuse
completely with the root faces of the joint.
 Reason for Incomplete penetration
• Too large root face.
• Root gap too small.
• Too small bevel angle.
• Less arc current.
• Faster arc travel speed.
• Too large electrode diameter.
Prevention of Incomplete Penetration

• Proper fit-up of welds with proper root gap,


root face.
• Selection of proper welding process and size
of electrode / filler wire.
• Use of skilled welder
Porosity, blow holes or gas pockets
The presence of a group of gas pores in a weld caused by
the entrapment of gas during solidification is termed as
porosity. The pores are in the form of small spherical
cavities, either clustered locally or scattered throughout the
weld deposit. Sometimes the entrapped gases give rise to a
single large cavity, which is termed as a blowhole.
Gases are evolved by the chemical reaction in the welding
arc. These gases may have high solubility in the molten
weld metal, but as the metal solidifies and cools, their
solubility decreases rapidly and they are evolved from the
metal. Sometimes if the weld-metal solidification and
cooling is too rapid, the gas gets entrapped in the form of
Reason of Porosity
Improper welding consumables. i.e. deficient in
de-oxidizers.
• Oil, grease, moisture and mill scale on the
joint surface.
• Inadequate gas shielding or impure gas in a
gas-shielded process.
• Low welding current or too long an arc.
  Prevention of Porosity
• Use dry, clean filler rods /electrodes.
• Base plate should be thoroughly cleaned of oil, grease,
paint etc.
• Do not overheat the welding zone.
• Remove all flux and slag between multi-pass weld.
• Keep a weld puddle of sufficient size that slows down
the cooling rate of the weld metal.
• Creating the inert gas atmosphere in the vicinity of
the welding zone.
Lack of fusion
Lack of fusion is defined as a condition where
boundaries /gaps exist between the weld metal and
base metal or between adjacent / subsequent layers
of weld metal.
Reason of Lack of Fusion
This defect is caused by the presence of scale, dirt,
oxide, slag and other non metal is substances
which prevent the underlying metal from reaching
the molten stage.
Use of improper weaving / travel speed and
Prevention of lack of fusion
• Keep joint surfaces free from oil, slag, grease.
• Use adequate welding current with proper
weaving and travel speed.
• De-slag each weld pass
Undercut
In undercutting a groove gets formed in the parent metal
along the sides of the weld bead. Groove reduces the
thickness of the plate and thus the area along the bead,
which in turn weakens the weld.
Reason of undercut
1. Wrong manipulation and inclination of electrode and
excessive weaving.
2. Too large electrode diameter.
3. Higher current.
4. Faster arc travel speed.
Prevention of Undercut
1. Proper control of welding current.
2. Clean surfaces.
3. Shorter arc.
4. Proper selection of welding electrodes.
Safety requirement in arc
cutting and welding
All metal cutting & welding operations involves
electric arc as an intense source of heat. This can
harm the operators eyes and skin, and fire hazard.

The other sources of fire in these process are hot


metal and its flying particles, and stray arcs due to
short circuiting.
Safety requirement in arc cutting
and welding

Arc cutting and welding process expose the welder


to the danger of electric shock, and releases
fumes and gases which can be potential health
hazards.
Safety requirement in arc cutting
and welding
Precautions:

 Welder must be explained the method of avoiding electric shock.


 The welder must always wear shoes, gloves and protective clothing. He must
use head shied / goggles to protect the eyes from rays of an electric arc.
 Electrode must be removed from the holder and Gas cylinders valves must
be closed when not in use.
 Welders and supervisors must check their equipment regularly to see that
electric connections and insulation on the holders and cables are in good
order.
 Whenever welders are working in confined space, life line is essential.
Safety requirement in arc cutting
and welding
 The fumes and gases produced from welding
is non-toxic or toxic, depending on the
materials being welded.

 Prolonged exposure to the various toxic gases


can produce inflammation of the lung, chronic
bronchitis and loss of elasticity of the lung.

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