UNDERSTANDING THE

COMPUTING DEVICES
Introduction to Computer Codes
 Computer is a digital system which accepts data in binary
numbers.
 The information available in any other form is required to be
converted into suitable binary forms (0s and 1s) before it can be
processed by computer.
 The computer codes are also referred as binary codes.
 The data is converted into numeric format first by using
worldwide standard called ASCII, i.e. American Standard Code for
Information Interchange where each and every character, special
characters and keystrokes have respective numerical equivalents.
 Number System
 A number system is the set of symbols used to express quantities
as the basis for counting, determining order, comparing amounts,
performing calculations, and representing value.
 It is the set of characters and mathematical rules that are used to
represent a number.
Types of Number System
 Binary number system (base-2)
 Decimal number system (base-10)
 Octal number system (base-8)
 Hexadecimal number system (base-16)
 Number System

Number System Base or Radix (b) Symbols of Example

Digits used (d)

Binary System 2 0,1 10011

Octal System 8 0 to 7 4567.23

Decimal System 10 0 to 9 4589.89

Hexadecimal 16 0 to F 35F4.9A
System
 Decimal Number System
Position 5th 4th 3th 2nd 1st
Weight 104 103 102 101 100

To represent a number 12695, we can say:

12695 =1x104+2x103+6x102+9x101+5x100
=10000+2000+600+90+5
=(12695)10
 Binary Number System
Position 5th 4th 3th 2nd 1st
Weight 24 23 22 21 20

To represent a number 10101, we can say:

12695 =1x24+0x23+1x22+0x21+1x20
=16+0+4+0+1
=(21)10
 Octal Number System
Position 5th 4th 3th 2nd 1st
Weight 84 83 82 81 80

To represent a number 1237, we can say:

12695 =1x83+2x82+3x81+7x80
=512+128+24+7
=(671)10
 Hexadecimal Number System
Position 5th 4th 3th 2nd 1st
Weight 164 163 162 161 160

To represent a number 2BD, we can say:

12695 =2x162+Bx161+Dx160
=512+176+13
=(610)10
 Computer Arithmetic
 The computer arithmetic is referred as binary arithmetic.
 Various binary arithmetic operations can be performed in
the same way as the decimal arithmetic operations, but
by following a predefined set of rules.
 The different binary arithmetic operations performed in a
computer system are:
 Binary addition
 Binary multiplication
 Binary subtraction
 Binary division
 Binary Addition
001101 1110
100101 1000

0011 01011
0100 00110
0111 01111
Binary Multiplication

1011 100010
1001 10010

Binary Subtraction
10101 1111101 111111
01110 1110110 011110

Binary Division
1000)10011( 1100)11011000(
 Computer

 A computer is an electronics device

 Accepts data as inputs.
 Process and manipulate data as requirement.
 Gives output.

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Characteristics Of Computer
 Speed
 Accuracy
 Diligence
 Versatility
 Storage
 Automatic
 Power of remembering
 Processing
 Non-intelligent

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 Application Of Computer
 Education
 Industries
 Research
 Hospital
 Data Processing
 Science and Engineering
 Offices
 Advertisement

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 Contd…
 Communication
 Library
 Simulation
 Weather Forecasting
 Hotel Management
 Airline Corporation

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 Advantages Of Computer
 Computers are 100% accurate and much more reliable than any other
devices and human beings.
 It is very much useful for repeated jobs, which is difficult and tedious for
humans to do.
 Computer is much faster than humans.
 With the help of computer, complicated things are easy to show and
simulate.
 It is versatile and can perform various types of works.
 It can be used in multiple fields so it is called general purpose machine
 Because of the availability of storage, programs can be modified to add
features for different purpose.
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 Disadvantages Of Computer
 It is expensive and is beyond the reach of poor people. This limitation is being
overcome because its cost is drastically decreasing day by day.
 It is an electronic machine, so there is much danger of electric shock and other
physical damage.
 Since people are getting more relied upon computer, sometimes the failure in devices
and programs can produce unreliable information and cause loss of data in a great
extent.
 It increases dependency on machine. Even for every simple calculation people need
them.
 Although it helps in faster and cheaper communication there is much danger for
security leakage.
 In developing countries, it increases piracy of intellectual properties in big volume.
 Since computers are used in sensitive areas like national defense, civil aviation,
banking, so even a simple fault can cause loss of life and property.
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 Computer System

Arithmetic & Logic

Unit

Input Output Device

Device
Control Unit Memory
Unit

Secondary Storage
 A computer is a system composed of different
devices.
 It must be provided with data, instruction and
information as input.
 Then input is processed, manipulated with
provision of control of processing operation.
 And finally gives an output.
 A computer is combination of input unit,
central processing unit and output unit together
with secondary storage (memory).

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Computer System Consist four Sub-system
 Hardware
 Software
 Data
 People
 Hardware
 The Physical devices of the computer are called hardware:
 It is responsible for all Input, output and processing of the
data.
 Examples, Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor etc

Software:
 It refer set of program and instructions that help the

computers in carrying out their processing.

 It is very necessary for the proper functioning of

computers
 Types : Application Software, system Software.
 Data:
It refer to the raw facts and pieces of information that is usually entered into the
computer system by the user, so as to the desired output.
The data are presented in the form of understandable by the computer system and
the result is delivered in the form of understandable by the user.

It can be represented in two forms:

Qualitative:
Represent in word or text form. It can also includes
images, video etc.
Quantitative:
The data which are represented in numerical form
are known as quantitative data. This type of data
include different number and symbol used for
representing a particular quantity.
 People:
INPUT UNITS
 Accept the data and instructions from the outside
world
 Convert it to a form that the computer can
understand
 Supply the converted data to the computer system
for further processing
 Eg: Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light-pen, touch-
panel etc.

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OUTPUT UNIT
 provides the information and results of a computation to
outside world.
 Convert it to a form that the outside world can
understand.
 Eg: monitor, printer, speaker, plotter

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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
 The control unit , ALU and Memory unit (primary
storage) of the computer are together known as the
Central Processing Unit (CPU).

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 The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
 It performs all calculations
 It takes all decisions
 It controls all units of the computer
 Arithmetic Logical Unit:
 Arithmetic operation:
It is a part of CPU that performs arithmetic operation on data
(addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
 Logical operation:
Greater than (>), less than (<), equal to = ,
Not equal to (!= )

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28

Control Unit:
 Controls all other units in the computer.
 The control unit instructs the input unit, where to store the data
after receiving it from the user.
 controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage unit
to ALU.
 It also controls the flow of results from the ALU to the storage
unit.
 The control unit is generally referred as the central nervous
system of the computer that control and synchronizes its
working.
 Memory Unit
 It is a part of CPU where all the given
instructions, data and the results are stored during
processing period.
 Eg: RAM, ROM

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 Types of Memory
 Internal Processor Memory
 Register
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory
 Temporary, Permanent
 Secondary
 Permanent

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 Internal Processor Memory
 Memory placed on the CPU
 Directly accessed by the processor
 Temporarily holds data and instructions on which CPU is
currently working.
 Fast and expensive.
 Used to compensate the time gap between CPU and
internal memory

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 Internal Processor Memory
 Register: Register are special purpose high speed
temporary memory units. It holds the information that the
CPU currently working on. It is CPU working memory.
 Cache: It is a small, quick and expensive memory placed
between main memory and processor. It contains copy of
main memory’s data and when processor requests for data
send data to processor for processing. It increases storing
capacity of main memory and increases speed of
processor.

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 Primary Memory
 Directly accessible to the CPU.
 CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as
required.
 Any Data actively operated on is stored there in uniform manner.
 Temporary Memory: which is placed temporarily inside the computer
and user can exchange or replace.

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 Primary Memory

 Temporary Memory/Volatile Memory: which is placed

temporarily inside the computer and user can exchange
or replace and also data are stored temporarily.I t is also
called volatile memory. Eg: RAM
 Permanent Memory/Non-volatile Memory: placed inside
the computer permanently on the processing board.
Generally user cannot exchange such memory and data
stored. Eg: ROM

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Secondary Memory/External Memory
 Not directly accessible by the CPU
 Also called backup memory because these
memories are used to store data for further
application
 Eg: Floppy disk, Hard Disk, CD-ROM, Pen drive.

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 SRAM V/S DRAM
 Static RAM
 It doesn’t need periodic
refresh.
 It is faster than DRAM.
 It occupies large space.
 More expensive.
 Consumes less power
 Dynamic RAM
 It needs periodic
refresh.
 It is slower than SRAM.
 It occupies less space.
 Less expensive.
 Consumes more power
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 Types of ROM
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Programmable ROM (PROM)
 Erasable PROM (EPROM)
 Electrical EPROM (EEPROM)

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 PROM - (programmable read-only memory) is a memory chip on
which data can be written only once.
 Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever.
 The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that
a PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is
programmed during the manufacturing process.
 To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a
PROM programmer or PROM burner. The process of programming a
PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM.
 EPROM - (erasable programmable read-only memory) 
 Type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
Once it is erased, it can be reprogrammed.
 EEPROM - (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory).
 PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.
 RAM V/S ROM
 It stands for Random Access Memory. It
is also called read/write or volatile
memory because its contents can be
emptied when refresh command is
executed or computer shut down.
 Its contents lost if power off.
 Costly
 SRAM, DRAM
 It stands for Read Only Memory. It is
called dead store, field store, permanent
stores and non-volatile memory.
 It retains contents if power is off
 Cheap
 PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash
Memory
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 Emerging Technologies
 Internet of things
 Virtual reality
 Augmented reality
 Chatbots
 BlockChain (1991 , Bitcoin)
 Software As Services
 Cloud Computing
 Web 2.0
 E-Society
 Deep learning (High DB else Machine learning)
 NLP
 Internet Of Things
The internet of things, is a system of interrelated computing devices,
and the ability to transfer and receive data over a network.

Virtual reality:
Virtual reality is an artificial environment that is created with software and
presented to the user in such a way that the user suspends belief and accepts it as a
real environment.

Augmented reality (Interior Frame)

Adds digital elements to a live view often by using the camera on a smartphone.
Examples of augmented reality experiences include Snapchat lenses.

Chatbots
is a computer program or an artificial intelligence which conducts
a conversation via auditory or textual methods. Such programs are often designed
to convincingly simulate how a human would behave as a conversational partner
 BlockChain
Digital database containing information (such as
records of financial transactions) that can be
simultaneously used and shared within a large
decentralized, publicly accessible network
 Software as a service (SaaS) is a software distribution model in which
a third-party provider hosts applications and makes them available to
customers over the Internet. 
 Cloud computing is the on-demand delivery of compute power,
database storage, applications, and other IT resources through a cloud
services platform via the internet with pay-as-you-go pricing.
 Interactive and dynamic web experience. Web 2.0 is focused on the
ability for people to collaborate and share information online via social
media, blogging and Web-based communities.
 A community where most of the transactions can be executed digitally.
 Deep Learning is a new area of Machine Learning research, which has
been introduced with the objective of moving Machine Learning closer
to one of its original goals: Artificial Intelligence
 NLP Neuro-linguistic programming is the practice of understanding
how people organize their thinking, feeling, language and behavior to
produce the results they do.
 software

Software

Application Software System software

Operating system Utility software

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 Computer Software
 Also known as programs.
 Collections of instruction for a computer.
 Computers requires program to function,
typically executing the program’s instruction in
CPU.
 Software may be categorized along functional
lines:- System software
- Application software.

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 Application Software
 It is a computer software designed to perform a specific function
directly for the user or in some case for another application program.
 Also called software applications, applications or apps.
 Productive software, Presentation software, graphics software, CAD,
specialized scientific application, industry specific software.

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 System Software
 Operating system and utility programs.
 Manage computer resources at a low level.
 Allows the parts of a computer to work together.
 It insulate the applications programmer/user as much as possible from
detail of the particular computer complex being used.
 Divided basically: Operating System
Utility Software

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 Utility software
 Also known as service routine, tools or utility routine.
 Designed to help manage and tune the computer
hardware, OS or application software by performing a
single task or small range of tasks.
 Some utilities are integrated into major operating system.
 Defragmenters, anti-virus, data compression etc.

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 Operating system (OS)
 Collection of program program that controls and
manages the hardware and other software on a computer.
 Interface between hardware and user.
 Responsible for the management and coordination of
activities.
 Sharing of the resources of the computer that acts as a
host for computing application run on the machine.
 Application program makes the use of OS by making
request for services.
 Linux, Windows.

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 History of Operating Systems
The earliest computers were mainframes that lacked any form of operating
system.
Each user use on punched paper cards and magnetic or paper tape.

 The first operating systems (60th-70th years)

Each manufacturer had such proprietary operating system, which differed from
each other completely, and the operator had always relearn everything from
scratch.

 1969 – UNIX
Give the foundations of today's operating systems (Linux, Mac OS X, NeXTSTEP,
OpenBSD ..)
 (1973) Xerox
It was not a commercially very successful but affected the whole
generation of computers and operating systems. It was the first computer
using a mouse and a fully graphical interface.

 1977 – Apple II
Steve Wozniak Apple II became one of the first massively expanded
home computers.

 1981 – MS DOS
System Which of the then little-known service firms on behalf of
Microsoft has done a multinational corporation.

 1988 – NeXTSTEP
Steve Jobs in the eighties left Apple and went to pursue his own project
called NeXTSTEP .
 1992 – Windows 3.1
The first Window with Internet
 1995 – Windows 95
 1998 – Windows 98
 2009 – Windows 7
 Window 8
 Windows 10
 Function Of Operating
 System
Managing Resources: Manage the resources of a
computer such as the printer, mouse, keyboard,
memory and monitor.
 Providing User Interface: Graphical user interface
(GUI) is something developers create to allow users
to easily click something without having to
understand how or why they clicked an icon. Each
icon on a desktop represents code linking to the
spot in which the icon represents. It makes it very
easy for uneducated users.
 Running Applications, is the ability to run an
application such as Word processor by locating it
and loading it into the primary memory. Most
operating systems can multitask by running many
applications at once.
 Support for built-in Utility Programs: This is the
program that find and fixes errors in the operating
system.
 Control Computer Hardware: All programs that
need computer hardware must go through the
operating system which can be accessed through
the BIOS (basic input output system) or the device
drivers.
Processor management
• Managing a computer’s CPU to ensure its optimum
utilization is called processor management.
• Operating system decides which task (process) gets the
processor (CPU) when and how much time it will take.
• Allocation and De-allocation of processor (CPU) to
processes when required. 
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process by program
called traffic controller
 Job scheduling 
 It is the process of allocating system resources (Processot
) to different tasks

 Job Must be schedule in such a way that

 There is maximum utilization of CPU.
 Time require to complete each job is minimum.
 Each job gets the fastest possible response time

Two methods of job scheduling

Preemptive
Non-preemptive
 Preemptive
 The preemptive scheduling is prioritized. The
highest priority process should always be the
process that is currently utilized.

 The running task is interrupted for some time and

resumed later when the priority task has finished
its execution.

 For Eg: Round robin, Response ration Scheduling

 Non-Preemptive
 When a process enters the state of running, the state
of that process is not deleted from the scheduler
until it finishes its service time.

 For eg FIFO system, Deadline Scheduling, Shortest

job next scheduling
 Memory management 

• Memory management is the process of controlling and

coordinating computer memory, to optimize overall system
performance.
• It manage balance between primary and secondary memory.
• Operating System manages Main Memory. Main memory
provides a fast storage that can be access directly by the CPU.
• Keeps track of Main memory: Which part is used and not in used
is tracked by Operating System.
• Allocation and De-allocation of memory : Allocation of memory
to process when process requests it and De-allocation of memory
when the process no needs it. 
• OS (operating system) decides which process will get memory
when and how much.
 Techniques to allocate memory
 Contiguous Storage Allocation

 Estimate of required memory and allocate the chunk of

memory in primary and secondary memory
 Drawback : Might not available of whole chunk of data
 Non-Contiguous Storage Allocation

 Program divided into smaller components and each

component is stored in separate location.
 Break down the program into different chunk
 Program Paging: Fixed Size
 Program segmentation: logical unit called segments.
 File Management

• Managing file system by OS is called file management.

• It enable user to manipulate their data.
• Keep track of who gets the resources. 
• Operating System keeps track of Status, location and uses of
Resources.
• Allocation of resources when requested and De-allocation of
resources.
• It helps to operate following activities:
• Create
• Share
• Update
• Securing data through password or encryption
• Recovery In case of system failure.
 Computer Network
 A computer network is a set of computers or
computing device connected together for the
purpose of sharing resources
 Computer network is a network of computers and
other peripheral devices.
 Communication and sharing resources is basic
purpose of networking.

64
 Advantages of Networking
 Information sharing
 Hardware and Software sharing
 Faster and cheaper communication
 Backup and recovery

65
 Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Security of data
 Need of technical persons

66
 Network Types
 On the basis of architecture
 Peer-To-Peer Network
 Client Server Based Network

 On the basis of geographical location of

computer
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network. (WAN)

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 Peer to Peer Network
 A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is group of
computers, each of which acts as client and server
for sharing files within the group.
 The computers or devices that are part of it share
the workloads in the network.
 Advantages of P2P network
 Easy to set up and maintain as each computer
manages itself.
 It eliminates extra cost required in setting up the
server.
 Since each device is master of its own, they an: not
dependent on other computers for their operations.
Disadvantage of P2P network
 The absence of centralized server make it difficult
to backup data as data is located on different
workstations.
 Security is weak as each system manages itself only.
 There is no central point of data storage for file
backup.
 Client Server Network
 A computer network in which one centralized, pow
erful computer (called server) is connected to other
less powerful computer or workstation.

 Clients run program and access the data that are

stored on the server.
 Client Server Network-
Advantages
  Centralized control, Servers help in administering the
whole set-up ,data access rights and resource allocation is
done by Servers.
 Easy Back-up and Recovery .
 Scalability and Upgrade
 High security.
 Easy to operate.
Client Server Network-
Disadvantages
 Congestion in Network : Too many requests from the
clients may lead to congestion
 Cost : It is very expensive to install and manage this type of
computing.
 You need professional IT people to maintain the servers
and other technical details of network.
 Client-Server architecture is not as robust as a P2P and if the
server fails, the whole network goes down.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
Computer network that links devices within a building or group of
adjacent buildings, especially one with a radius of less than 1 km.

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that
interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area
or region larger than that covered by even a large local area
network.

 Wide Area Network. (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that exists over a large-
scale geographical area. A WAN connects different smaller
networks, including local area networks (LANs) and metro area
networks (MANs)
 Topologies

 Network Topologies Describe

 Structure of the network
 Physical Layout of Cabling (Physical Topology)
 How the media is accessed by communicating hosts
(Logical Topology)
Common Physical Topologies
 Network Topology
 Bus
 Ring
 Star
 Mesh

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 Bus Topology
 Uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends.
 All the hosts connect directly to this backbone
 Bandwidth is shared between the number of hosts on
Network
 Can be Logical or Physical
 Advantage of Bus Topology
• It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
• Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other
networks.
• Bus topology costs very less.
• Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
 Disadvantage of Bus Topology
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution.
 Star Topology
 A star topology connects all cables to a central point of
concentration
 Can be a Logical Bus or Ring
 Concentrator can be a
 Hub
 Switch
 Advantages of Star topology
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to install and wire.
 Easy to detect faults.
  As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals
don’t necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations. 
 Disadvantage of Bus Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear bus topology.
 If the connecting network device (switch) fails, nodes attached are disabled
and cannot participate in network communication.
 More expensive than linear bus topology because of the cost of the
connecting devices (switches).
 Ring Topology
 Connects one host to the next and the last host to the first
 This creates a physical ring of cable
 Can be Logical or Physical
 Data is transmitted in one direction only
 Advantage of Ring Topology
• It is relatively less expensive than a star topology network.
• In a Ring topology, every computer has an equal access to the network.
• Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
• All data flows in one direction, reducing the chances of packet collision.
 Disadvantage of Ring Topology
• Failure of one computer in the ring can affect the whole network.
It is difficult to find faults in a ring network topology.
• Adding or removing computers will also affect the whole network since
every computer is connected with previous and next computer.
• Sending a message from one computer to another takes time according
to the number of nodes between the two computers. Communication
delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network.
 Mesh Topology
 Implemented to provide as much protection as possible from
interruption of service
 The use of a mesh topology in the networked control systems
of a nuclear power plant would be an excellent example
 Each host has its own connections to all other hosts.
 Internet has multiple paths to any one location but it does not
adopt the full mesh topology.
 Advantage of Mesh Topology
 Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously.
 Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.
 Expansion and modification in topology can be done without
disrupting other nodes.
Disadvantage of Mesh Topology
• There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network
connections.
• Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to 
other network topologies.
• Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even
administration of the network is tough.
 Hybrid Topology
 A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more
differing network topologies. These topologies include a mix of 
bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology, and 
tree topology.
 Advantage of Hybrid Topology
 Very reliable and easy to detect the Faulty system.
 Troubleshooting is easy.
 It includes both wired and wireless network.
 It is an expandable network.
 Disadvantage of Hybrid Topology
 Its design is difficult to understand.
 The cost of this network design is high, because of the requirement of a lot
 of cables, cooling systems, etc.
 MAU ( Multi-station Access Unit) is required.
 Secondary or Auxiliary Memory
 It is non volatile (long-term) memory.
 It is where programs and data kept for long-term storage.
 These memory are lowest-cost, highest-capacity, and slowest-access
storage as compare to primary memory,
 For example : Hard disk, Magnetic Tape, optical disk etc.
 On the basis of data access it can be sub-divided
into two types

 Sequential Access
Data stored in media can only be read in sequence.
To get Particular point in media, we have to o through all the preceding points
For example: magnetic tape
 Random Access:
Data can be access from any point without passing preceding points.
Fast as compare to sequential access
For eg: Magnetic disk, optical disk
Magnetic Tape
Sequentially access storage medium for large data.
Plastic tape coated (covered) with magnetic material (iron oxide )
Magnetic tape are erasable, reusable and durable..

Uses of magnetic tapes

For application that are based on sequential data processing.
It is cheaper than other means of storage devices.
It is suitable for those data which are not to be updated frequently
Advantage of magnetic tapes
• Cost per bit of storage is very low for magnetic tapes.
• Tape can be erased and reused many times.
• Easy to handle and store
• Very large amount of data can be stored in a small storage space.
• Portable and durable.
 Disadvantage
 Not suitable for those data which are to be frequently accessed.
 Due to sequential nature data retrieval speed is very low.
 Factors like humidity and temperature can cause potential issues.
Magnetic Disk (Hard disk and floppy
Can store more data in a small place disk)
An alternative to tape storage is magnetic disk storage.
 and possess faster data access.
 It is covered with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks and sectors
TRACKS
Each disk is broken into thousands of tightly packed concentric circles, known as tracks.
All the information stored on the hard disk is recorded in tracks.
Each track can hold a large amount of data counting to thousands of bytes.

SECTORS:
Each track is further broken down into smaller units called sectors.
As sector is the basic unit of data storage on a hard disk.
A single track typically can have thousands of sectors and each sector can hold more
than 512 bytes of data.
  Advantage of magnetic disk:
• More suitable than a magnetic tape.
• Suitable for online and off-line storage of data.
• with Random Access property we can achieve high data retrieval
speed
• Low cost, durable, portable and high storage capacity.

Disadvantages
 Risk of loss of data: Records may be lost in case of writing of new records
or drive failure.
 Data insecurity: Most difficult to maintain security on shared and on-line
storage
 Expensive: Magnetic disks are expensive compared to magnetic tapes.
 Optical Disk Drive
 An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques
and technology to read and write data.
 Data is read and written by low-powered laser beam (Light with similar
wavelength)
 By detecting the light intensity reflected from the surface information store
on disk can be accessed.
 Storage capacity = no of sector * no of byte per second.
  Advantage of optical Disks
• Cost per bit of storage for optical disks is very low.
• Data are read/write through laser beam due to which it is more reliable than
magnetic tapes and disk (there is not any read/write head to rub against or
crash into the disk surface)
• It is portable, light weight, durable (30 years)

 Disadvantage
• It is largely read-only (permanent) storage medium
• Optical disk need more care (single scratch or fingerprint ) can damage optical
disk.
 CD, DVD, Blu-ray
 Note : Storage capacity depend upon wavelength (frequency) of laser
beam
 CD-ROM, CD-RW, CD-R

CD DVD BlU-ray
Less Storage Capacity (700 MB ) High Storage than CD High Storage Than DVD
(4.74 GB ) (25 GB)
Uses of Infrared laser as laser Red laser as laser beam Blue laser as laser beam
beam
 Magneto Optical Drive
 A magneto-optical disk is a rewritable disk that makes use of both magnetic
disk and optical technologies.
 Magneto-optical disks are also known as magneto-optical drives and MO
drives.
 It is more durable than other means of storage.
 It is capable of having high data intensity by means of a magnetic
read/write head and a laser.
 Like magnetic disk, the magneto-optical disk allows multiple rewrites.
 Convenience and reliability are much better than those of diskettes, along
with high data capacity.