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GEOGRAPHIC

INFORMATION
SYSTEM

Baloye D.O
INTRODUCTION

The need for man to master his


environment led to the emergence
of the field of geography and allied
disciplines.

However, better spatial analysis of man’s


complex interrelationships with his environment

? gave birth to what is known as


Geoinformation/Geoinformatics/
Geographic Information System (GIS).
TERMS DEFINED Geoinformatics
Body of knowledge (theory) that deals with the
Geoinformation:
acquisition (using different methods), processing
encompasses all the material knowledge of the
and management of geo-information.
earth; including all the information, data, and the
products resulting form the activities and studies * - concepts and techniques used in
in Geosciences made up of disciplines including data acquisition like e.g Land
Geography, Surveying, Geoinformatics, Geology, Surveying/Geodesy, Photogrammetry
Geodesy, Geochemistry and Geophysics. and Remote Sensing

- the processing and management of the


acquired data

- and production of information from


such systems.

In other words, the science of the acquisition,


storage, analysis, manipulation and dissemination
of geoinformation.
TERMS DEFINED…
Geoinformatics:

A union

&
Geosciences Information Technology

* The science of acquisition, management, modelling, analysis and representation of


spatial data and processes with specific consideration of problems related to spatial
planning, land use/land development and environmental issues (Grun, 1998).

* The science of measuring and mapping the spatial distribution of data (Dale, 1999).

* The science of spatially related data, especially its collection, manipulation and
representation

The central tool in Geoinformatics is the Geographical Information System (GIS).


THE BEGINNING
1854: John Snow depiction of a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the
locations of some individual cases and which was based mostly on cartographic
techniques.
1959: Waldo Tobler outlines a simple model called MIMO (map in-map out) for applying
the computer to cartography. The principles of the MIMO system were the origins for
geocoding, data capture, data analysis and display.
1962: Dr. Roger Tomlinson developed world's first true operational GIS called the
"Canada Geographic Information System" (CGIS) for the Federal Department of
Forestry and Rural Development. CGIS was for mapping information about soils,
agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and land use at a scale of
1:50,000 with a rating classification factor to permit analysis.
1964: Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial
Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965-1991), where a
number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed.
1967: US Bureau of Census DIME (Dual Independent Map Encoding) data format
christened by George Farnsworth was developed.
David P. Bickmore started the Experimental Cartography Unit (ECU) at the Royal
College of Art in London by.
AUTOMAP - Automatic Mapping System developed by the US C.I.A. became
operational. It could produce castlines and any form of line or point data.
THE BEGINNING…

1968: The Transportation Information System was developed by Robert Tweedie of the N.Y
State Department of Transportation at Albany, and was based on grid manipulation. It
incorporated, among others, geocoded land use and travel characteristics.

1969: Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), founded by Jack & Laura
Dangermond.
Integraph Corporation (originally called M&S Computing Inc) by Jim Meadlock.
Laser-Scan was founded in 1969 by three academics from the Cavendish Laboratories,
Cambrdige, United Kingdom.
Ian McHarg's influential book Design With Nature was published, thus popularising
the development of map overlay techniques.

1970: First symposium on Geographical Information Systems spearheaded by Roger


Tomlinson and Duane Marble was held in Ottawa, Canada.

1972: The first Landsat satellite (originally known as ERTS-1) was launched, thus starting the
satellite revolution.

1974: The first AUTOCARTO conference was held in September 1974, in Reston, Virginia.

1976: Minnesota Land Management Information System (MLMIS) began in 1976 as a


research project at the Center for Urban and Regional Analysis, University of
Minnesota.
THE BEGINNING…

1979: The ODYSSEY GIS developed at the Harvard Lab as the first vector GIS.

1980 : MAP (Map Analysis Package) developed by Dana Tomlin as a raster-based GIS.

1985: The Edinburgh M.Sc. in GIS was one of the first educational programmes on GIS.

1987: Idrisi Project started by Ron Eastman at Clark University.

1988: GIS World Launched as the world 's first magazine for geographic technology.

1993: Xerox PARC Map Viewer the first Web-based interactive map was developed by Steve
Putz and was implemented as as a perl script that accepts requests for map renderings
and returns an HTML document including an inlined GIF image of the requested map.

1995: The National Geographic Data Framework (NGDF) is established in UK.

1996: First International Conference on Global Spatial Data Infrastructure is held in Boon,
Germany.

2011: YOU ARE HERE…


GIS: The Definition

Could be severally defined along the following categories:

* Process-/function-oriented definition; this emphasizes the information handling


capabilities of GIS (eg., storage, retrieval, manipulation, and display of geographic
data). This category of information stresses the various activities carried out or
functions performed in any GIS project.

* Application oriented definition; divides information systems according to the


problems they seek to address (e.g., soil, land, and planning information system).
This implies that this type of definition expresses the kind of information being
handled or rather it explains the area of work where GIS is being applied to.

* Toolbox ; empxhasizes the generic aspects of GIS as a toolbox to manipulate spatial


data, that is, these definitions emphasize the various procedure and algorithm for
solving the complex spatial problems.

* Database oriented definition– regards GIS as a database system, reflecting the


influence of database theory and practice on GIS. This category of definitions sees
GIS as only involving database.
GIS: The Definition…

"A geographic information system is a facility for preparing, presenting, and interpreting facts
that pertain to the surface of the earth.

“A geographic information system or GIS is a configuration of computer hardware and software


specifically designed for the acquisition, maintenance, and use of cartographic data." –
C. Dana Tomlin

"A geographic information system (GIS) is an information system that is designed to work with
data referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database
system with specific capabilities for spatially-reference data, as well [as] a set of operations for
working with data . . . In a sense, a GIS may be thought of as a higher-order map." –
Jeffrey Star and John Estes

"an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel
designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of
geographically referenced information." - ESRI

“Such computerized system manages geographically-referenced information by integrating a


database and a mapping software, and providing the tools to analyze spatial relationships
between events or phenomena.” - discoverGIS.com

“…………………” Somebody
GIS: The Definition… Comprehensive GIS therefore require a means of:
Data input:
Data transformation, analysis, and modeling:
maps, aerial photos, satellites,
including spatial statistics
surveys, and other sources

Data reporting:
Data storage and retrieval:
maps, reports, and plans
computer and workstations
GIS: What it cannot do GIS can help provide answers to the under listed
generic questions and other spatial problems
Location: What is at………….?
The first of these questions seeks to
find out what exists at a particular
location. A location can be
described in many ways, using, for
example place name, post code, or
geographic reference such as X
longitude/latitude or x/y. Where is
facility X? Where are the wetlands?

Condition: Where is it………….?


The second question is the converse of the first and
requires spatial data to answer. Instead of
identifying what exists at a given location, one may
wish to find location(s) where certain conditions
are satisfied (e.g., an unforested section of at-least
2000 square meters in size, within 100 meters of
road, and with soils suitable for supporting
buildings)
GIS: What it cannot do… Trends: What has changed since…………..?
The third question might involve both the first
Patterns: What spatial patterns two and seeks to find the differences (e.g. in
exists…………..? land use or elevation) over time. For instance
This question is more sophisticated. One might how many acres of wetlands have disappeared
ask this question to determine whether since 1980? Since 1990?
landslides are mostly occurring near streams.
It might be just as important to know how
many anomalies there are, that do not fit the
pattern and where they are located e.g What is
the distribution of high blood lead levels in
children?
GIS: What it cannot do…

Modelling What if……………..?

"What if…" questions are posed to


determine what happens, for
example, if a new road is added to
a network or if a toxic substance
seeps into the local ground water
supply. Answering this type of
question requires both geographic
and other information (as well
as specific models). GIS permits
spatial operation.
GIS: The architecture
Like any other system, GIS integrate three
elements namely;

* Geography: * Information: *Systems:


which refers to the real relating to data and Computer technology and
world i.e natural and human information about the its supporting
phenomena which form the earth; their meaning and infrastructures.
complex reality. The use.
Geography often referred to
in GIS is only some part of
the real word simply
because the real world
cannot be completely
represented.
GIS: The architecture…
GIS Subsystems
A GIS has 3 main functional subsystems.

*Data Acquisition (Input) Subsystem;


allows the user to capture, collect, and
transform spatial and thematic data into
digital form. This subsystem involves the
process of identifying and gathering the data
required for a GIS application. Gathering
new data for GIS involves preparing large-
scale maps of field observations, or by
contracting for aerial photography, locating
and acquiring existing data, such as maps,
aerial and ground photography, surveys of
many kinds, and documents, from archives
and repositories.
GIS: The architecture…
*Data Management (storage/manipulation/Analysis)
GIS Subsystems… subsystem;
- organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a
form that permits quick retrieval for analysis,
and accurate updates to be made i.e database.

- the database is managed with a database


management system (DBMS)for maintaining
attribute data while spatial data is usually encoded
and maintained in a proprietary file format.

- defines and execute spatial and attribute


procedures (analysis) to generate derived
information.
- Overlay
- Neighbourhood function (buffer, thiessen poly)
-Topographic(watershed modeling, intervisibility
slope and aspect generation).

- commonly referred to as the heart of GIS, it


distinguishes it from other database information
systems.
GIS: The architecture…
GIS Subsystems…

* Information Presentation (Display) Subsystem:


This Subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays,
normally maps, and tabular reports representing derived
information products.
GIS: The architecture…
GIS Subsystems…

DATA SUBSYSTEM INFORMATION


PRESENTATION
SUBSYSTEM
DIGITAL LAND SURVEYING
HYDROGRAGHIC SURVEYING,
TOTAL STATION, GPS, DATA MANAGEMENT
SMARTSTATION DIGITAL SUBSYSTEM HARD COPY MAPS
LEVEL ETC.

ANALYTICAL/DIGITAL
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
SPATIAL DIGITAL MAPS
DATABASE
REMOTE SENSING

SCANNED MAPS REPORTS

DIGITIZED MAP
DATA EXCHANGEABLE
FORMAT
NON SPATIAL (ATTRIBUTE)
Components of GIS

HARDWARE
- data acquisition
* Automated Surveying e.g GPS
Total Station, EDM, Digital Level,
Echo Sounder etc.

* Remote Sensing e.g. Tape Coder, CD


Drive, Sensors, etc.
* Analytical/Digital Photogrammetry
e.g. Digital Camera, Space Craft etc
* Cartographic methods including maps
and charts e.g. Scanner, Digitizer etc.
* Attribute Data; Keyboard, Tape
Recorder etc.

- data management
Computer

- Information presentation
Components of GIS..
SOFTWARE: is defined as the group of instructions which enable the execution of a certain
procedure by a computer. A computer without software is a dead machine. GIS usually has a
series of software modules which can be broken down
into the following groups:

- the data acquisition modules; enable data input


within GIS.

- the data processing modules: processes data prior


to their use in specific analyses. Example of pre-
processing activities include; map transformation,
image processing, etc. The application of these
modules allows the useful incorporation of data
acquired from a wide variety of sources within a well
Generally, Key software components are
organised system which can then be used within * tools for the input and manipulation of
detailed analyses. This module also includes the geographic information
analytical modules which allow the manipulation of * a database management system (DBMS)
* tools that support geographic query,
data. analysis, and visualization.
* a graphical user interface(GUI) for easy
- the data presentation modules: control output access to tools.
devices forming part of the GIS. * Major GIS softwares:
Arc/Info/Arcview/ArcGIS by ESRI, Intergraph by
Intergraph, MapInfo by MapInfo, etc.
Components of GIS… (SPATIAL) DATA: This is the core of any GIS and probably the most
important component of a GIS. All accessible data, both geographical
and attribute, required to meet the geographical information needs,
identified or latent.

There are two types of data used in a GIS -


spatial and attribute.

The availability and accuracy of data will


affect the results of any analysis.

A GIS can integrate data from a number of


different sources and store in a database
management system.

A GIS will integrate spatial data with other


data resources and can even use a DBMS, used
by most organizations to organize and
maintain their data, to manage spatial data.
Components of GIS…

INFRASTRUCTURE (METHODS):
A successful GIS operates according to a well-
designed plan and business rules, which are the
models and operating practice unique to each
organization. This component also referred to as
methods, are the defined methods used to
analyze the data and produce accurate results.

The procedures include access protocols,


standards and guidelines. It also includes all
agreed practices required to facilitate the sharing
of the other four components of a GIS.
Components of GIS…

PEOPLE: GIS technology is of limited


value without the people who manage the
system and develop plans for applying it
to real world problems.

People in GIS range from technical


specialists who design and maintain the
system to those who use it to help them
perform their everyday work.

In other words, the people component


include all knowledge, skills, procedures,
and systems, technical or otherwise,
acquired by the stakeholders, that are
required for the smooth functioning of the
GIS to meet the information needs, both
identified or latent.

It is also responsible for the day-to-day


operations of the GIS.

Introduction to GIS BALOYE D.O.


COMPONENTS OF SPATIAL DATABASE

Basically, geographic information are made up of


two essential components namely:

* Thematic/Attribute (descriptive) components:


these are observed fact that describes
characteristics of the spatial features. These
characteristics can be quantitative and/or
qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often
referred to as tabular data.
SPATIAL
DATABASE
* Geometric/Spatial components: describes the
absolute and relative location of geographic
features.

Location of the geographic information for


instance on maps, uses a coordinate system to
allow locations to be read.

A spatial data has three components


COMPONENTS OF SPATIAL DATA

Locational data i.e coordinates


expressed in Geographic (Longitude and
Latitude), Rectangular (Easting, Northing)
or any other systems.

Spatial Relationship which deals with how Attribute


Non-Spatial
object
Data
geographic objects relate to each other on
space e.g. where is Y to Z, which is the Spatial
closest hospital to an accident scene. Object
Tempor Constant
al Data

Shape and Size which describes the


Location
dimension and form of the object. Topology
Geometric
Data

Any system that is capable of working with Spatial


Relationship
Metric
geographic information must therefore, be
able to:
Shape
* Create a space in the which locations of and Size Spatial
order

features can be plotted


* Plot and store information that
describes the shapes of the features in the
location space
* Store information that describes
what the shapes represent.
APPLICATION / USERS

Politician: „What is the population of the Sedgefield


parliamentary constituency?‟

Farmer: „What are the characteristics of the soils in


the Lobley Plantation?‟

Retailer: „Where should I locate my next clothing


outlet store?‟

Gas engineer: „Where should I dig up the road to


gain access to the gas main?‟

Health practitioner: „How can my authority best


respond to the needs of those single parent families
with low income and poor housing?‟

Climatologist: „How has the hole in the ozone layer


changed in the past 10 years?‟

Geologist: „Are there any trends in the pattern of


earthquakes in Italy which could help predict future
quakes?‟
APPLICATION / USERS…

Planner: „How has the distribution of urban and rural


population changed between the past two censuses?‟

Military commander: „If I deploy my equipment and


personnel here who will be able to see me and shoot
at me?‟

Home delivery service manager: „What is the shortest


route I can use to deliver all these refrigerators to the
homes of new customers?‟

City accountant: „What is the total value of the land


and property assets which the city has sold in the
last 12 months?‟

Forester: „If a fire were to start here on a breezy day,


in which direction would it spread and how much
timber would be lost?‟

Hydrologist: „A large quantity of a pollutant has


been introduced into this well: where will it spread
and which customers will be affected?‟

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