Motivation

 Motivation is the activation of goal-

oriented behaviour. It is a process that
start with a physiological or
psychological need or deficiency that
activates a behaviour or drive that is
aimed at a goal or incentive .
 Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries

 Types of motivation
 Intrinsic motivation:- refers to
motivation that is driven by an
interest or enjoyment in the task
itself, and exists within the individual
rather than relying on any external
pressure.


 Behavior is performedfor its ownsake.

Motivationcomes fromperformingtasks.
 Extrinsic motivation:- it comes from
outside of the individual. Common
extrinsic motivations are rewards like
money and grades, coercion and
threat of punishment. Competition is
in general extrinsic because it
encourages the performer to win and
beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic
rewards of the activity. A crowd
cheering on the individual and
trophies are also extrinsic incentives.

 It is the behaviour performed to acquire
rewards.

Types of motives
 Content theories
 Content theories focus on the factors
within a person that energize, direct,
sustain and stop behaviour. They look
at the specific needs that motivate
people.
 Content theorists include Abraham
Maslow, Clayton, P. Alderfer, Federick
Herzberg and David C. McClelland.
 Their theories have been helpful in
discussing motivation, but not all
have verified through research
 Maslow theory
 It consist of Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs which is a five level
need hierarchy.
 Five level of needs are:-
Ø Self-Actualization
 – Highest need level.
 – Involves an individual's desire
to
 Ø Esteem
 Self-esteem
 – Need for personal sense of
 accomplishment, mastery.
 Social-esteem
 – Need for respect, recognition,
 attention, and appreciation of
others
Ø Social
 – Need for love, affection, sense of
 Ø Safety and Security
 Relationships
 – need for security in
relationships
 Physical
 – need for security, protection
from
 future threats, and stability.
Ø Physiological
 – Basic needs: food, water, etc.
 Need Hierarchy Theory

Higher-order
needs

Self-
actualization
needs

Esteem needs

Social needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs
Lower-order
needs
 Hierarchy
Need Level
of Needs
Description Examples

Self-
Self- Realize
Realizeone’s
one’s Use
Useabilities
abilities
Actualization
Actualization full
fullpotential
potential to
tothe
thefullest
fullest

Feel
Feelgood
good Promotions
Promotions
Esteem
Esteem about
aboutoneself
oneself &&recognition
recognition
Interpersonal
Interpersonal
Social
Social
Belongingness
Belongingness relations,
relations,
interaction,
interaction,love
love parties
parties
Job
Jobsecurity,
security,
Security,
Security,
Safety
Safety health
health
stability
stability insurance
insurance
Food,
Food,water,
water, Basic
Basicpay
paylevel
level
Physiological
Physiological shelter
shelter to
tobuy
buyitems
items
Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher needs are
addressed.
 Alderfer ‘s ERG theory
 Three level hierarchy. There are three
groups of core needs: existence,
relatedness and growth.
 According to it more than one need can
be operative at the same time .
 If a higher level need can not be
fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower
level need increase.


  Existence:provision of basic material
requirements.
 – Desire for physiological and
 material well-being.
 Relatedness: desire for relationships. –
Desire to satisfy interpersonal
relationships.
 Growth
 – Desire for continued personal
growth and development.
 - desire for personal development.
 Alderfer’s ERG
Need Level Description Examples
Highest

Self-
Self- Worker
Worker
Growth
Growth development,
development, continually
continually
creative
creativework
work improves
improvesskills
skills
Interpersonal
Interpersonal Good
Goodrelations,
relations,
Relatedness
Relatedness relations,
relations, feedback
feedback
feelings
feelings
Lowest

Food,
Food,water,
water, Basic
Basicpay
paylevel
level
Existence
Existence shelter
shelter to
tobuy
buyitems
items

After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When
unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.
 Herzberg theory
 Two major factors known as “hygiene motivators”
 Motivator need factor:- related to nature of the
work and how challenging it is.
 – Improving factors leads to satisfaction, effort,
and
 performance.
 – Related to job content; what employees
actually do.
 – Factors:
 (1) achievement
 (2) recognition
 (3) work itself
 (4) responsibility
 (5) advancement
 - Hygiene factors:-
 – Improving factors prevents dissatisfaction.

 – Related to job environment more than nature of

work itself.
 – Factors:

 (1) policies and procedures

 (2) supervision
 (3) relations with supervisor
 (4) work conditions
 (5) salary
 (6) relations with peers
 (7) personal life
 (8) relations with subordinates
 (9) status
 (10) security
  Relate to the physical &
psychological context of the work.
 Refers to a good work
environment, pay, job
security.
When hygiene needs not met,
workers are dissatisfied. Note:
when met, they will not lead
to higher motivation, just will
prevent low motivation.

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick
Herzberg)
 Hertzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
 Employees’ satisfaction and
dissatisfaction stem from different
sources.
› Dissatisfaction results from the absence
of what Hertzberg calls hygiene
factors.
 salary
relationship with others
› Satisfaction results from the presence of
motivating factors.
opportunities
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Motivational
Hygiene Factors
Factors
•Quality of •Career Advancement
supervision
•Rate of pay •Personal growth
•Company policies •Recognition
•Working conditions •Responsibility
•Relations with others
•Job security •Achievement

High Job Dissatisfaction 0 Job Satisfaction High

 McClelland theory
 Three learned needs acquired from the
culture:-
1. affiliation

2. power

3. achievement

 Need for Achievement

 – a drive to pursue and attain goals

 – accomplishment is important for its

 own sake
 

 Need for Power
 – desire to influence others
 – desire recognition of others


 Need for Affiliation

 – a drive to relate to people effectively
 – desire for close relationships
David McClelland’s Theory
of Needs

nPow

nAch nAff
 Process theory
 Processtheories attempt to explain how
behaviour is energized, directed,
sustained and stopped. The four
major process theories include
Reinforcement, Expectancy, Equity,
and Goal setting. Process theories look
at the process of motivation rather than
specific motivators.
› Examples are
› Vroom’s expectancy-valence theory, and
› Skinner’s reinforcement theory.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Concepts

Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a

specific level of performance

Instrumentality: A performance  outcome

perception.

Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome

Expectancy, Instrumentality, &
Valence
› Expectancy is the perception that effort
(input) will result in a level of performance.
 You will work hard if it leads to high
performance.
 You would be less willing to work hard if you
knew that the best you would get on a paper
was a D regardless of how hard you tried.
Instrumentality: Performance leads to
outcomes.
 Workers are only motivated if they think
performance leads to an outcome.
Managers should link performance to
outcomes.
› Valence: How desirable each outcome is to a
person.
 Managers should determine the outcomes
 Managerial Implications of
Expectancy Theory
 Determine the outcomes employees value.
 Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can
be rewarded.
 Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance
levels.
 Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance.
 Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to
motivate high effort.
 Monitor the reward system for inequities.
 Organizational Implications of
Expectancy Theory
 Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay
decisions secret.

 Design challenging jobs.

 Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and
encourage cooperation.


 Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining

expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high
effort and goal attainment.

 Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous
questionnaires.

 Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the
motivation program.
Equity Theory
› Considers worker’s perceptions of the
fairness of work outcomes in proportion
to their inputs.
 Adams notes it is the relative rather than
the absolute level of outcomes a person
receives.
 The Outcome/input ratio is compared by
worker with another person called a
referent.
The referent is perceived as similar to the
worker.
 Equity exists when a person perceives
their outcome/input ratio to be equal to
the referent’s ratio.
If the referent receives more outcomes, they
should also give more inputs to achieve
 Ratio
Equity Theory
Employee’s
Comparison* Perception
Outcomes A < Outcomes B
Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A Outcomes B
= Equity
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A Outcomes B
> Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B

*Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.

 Negative and Positive Inequity
A. An Equitable Situation
Other
Self

$2 $4
= $2 per hour = $2 per hour
1 hour 2 hours
 Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)
B. Negative Inequity

Self Other

$2 $3
= $2 per hour = $3 per hour
1 hour 1 hour
 Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

C. Positive Inequity
Other
Self

$3 $2
= $3 per hour = $1 per hour
1 hour 1 hours
Equity Theory

Referent
ReferentComparisons:
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-inside
Self-outside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Other-outside
Equity Theory
› Considers worker’s perceptions of the
fairness of work outcomes in proportion
to their inputs.
 Adams notes it is the relative rather than
the absolute level of outcomes a person
receives.
The Outcome/input ratio is compared by
worker with another person called a
referent.
The referent is perceived as similar to the
worker.
 Equity exists when a person perceives
their outcome/input ratio to be equal to
the referent’s ratio.
If the referent receives more outcomes, they
should also give more inputs to achieve
Equity Theory
Person
Person
Condition
Condition Example
Example
Referent
Referent Worker
Worker
contributes
contributes
Outcomes
Outcomes == more
moreinputs
inputsbut
but
Equity
Equity Outcomes
Outcomes also
Inputs Inputs also
Inputs Inputs gets more
moreoutputs
gets Worker outputs
than Worker
referent
than referent
contributes
contributes
Underpayme
Underpayme Outcomes
Outcomes << more
moreinputs
inputsbut
but
nt
nt Outcomes
Outcomes also
also
Equity
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs
Inputs gets
gets thesame
the same
outputs
outputs
Worker
asWorker
as referent
referent
contributes
Outcomes contributes
Overpayment Outcomes >> same
Overpayment Outcomes sameinputs
inputsbut
but
Equity Outcomes also
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs
Inputs
also
gets
gets moreoutputs
more outputs
than referent
than referent
Inequity
 Inequity exists when worker’s
outcome/input ratio is not equal to
referent.
Underpayment inequity: ratio is less than
the referent. Worker feels they are not
getting the outcomes they should given
inputs.
Overpayment inequity: ratio is higher
than the referent. Worker feels they are
getting more outcomes then they should
given inputs.
 Restoring Equity: Inequity creates
tension in workers to restore equity.
 In underpayment, workers reduce input levels to
correct.
 Overpayment, worker can change the referent to
adjust.
Goal-Setting Theory
Edwin Locke
 Specificity  Commitment
 Challenge  Self-efficacy
 Feedback  Characteristics
 Participation  Culture
Goal Setting Theory
› Focus worker’s inputs in the direction of
high performance & achievement of
organizational goals.
 Goal is what a worker tries to
accomplish.
Goals must be specific and difficult for high
performance results.
Workers put in high effort to achieve such
goals.
 Workers must accept and be committed
to them.
Feedback on goal attainment also is
important.
Goals point out what is important to the
firm.
 Managers should encourage workers to
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin
Locke)
 Insights from Goal-Setting Research

n Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance.

- Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too
easy to achieve.
- Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance
because people begin to experience failure.
n
n Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for
Simple Rather Than Complex Tasks.
- Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal.
- Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel,
complex tasks when employees do not have clear
strategies for solving these types of problems.
n
n Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals.
- Goals and feedback should be used together.
 Insights from Goal-Setting Research
(continued)
n Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are
Equally Effective.
- Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach.
Different methods work in different situations.
n
n Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting
Outcomes.
- Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees
are committed to their goals.
- Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees
are not committed to their goals.
- Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for
employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring cooperation.
 Guidelines for Writing
“SMART” Goals
Specific
Measurable

Attainable

Results oriented

Time bound
Reinforcement Theory

Concepts:
Concepts:
Behavior
Behaviorisisenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbe
bemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)by
byproviding
providing(controlling)
(controlling)
consequences.
consequences.
Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendstotobe
berepeated.
repeated.
 Skinner’s Reinforcement
Theory
 Positive reinforcement
› Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
 Negative reinforcement
› Removing an unpleasant consequence when
the desired behavior occurs.
 Punishment
› Applying an undesirable condition to
eliminate an undesirable behavior.
 Extinction
› Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to
cause its cessation.