THYRISTORS

1.BASIC STRUCTURE&CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

3.PHYSICS OF OPERATION/BASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLE
*TWO TRANSISTOR ANALOGY

3.VI CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

5.DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
6.THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS
7.GATING CHARACTERISTICS
8.PROTECTION
 A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-
controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state device
that controls current The name "silicon controlled
rectifier" or SCR is General Electric's trade name for a
type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of
power engineers led by Gordon Hall and
commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957.

The basic purpose of the SCR is to function as a switch

that can turn on or off small or large amounts of power.
It performs this function with no moving parts that wear
out and no points that require replacing. There can be a
tremendous power gain in the SCR; in some units a
very small triggering current is able to switch several
hundred amperes without exceeding its rated abilities.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier

 A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (or Semiconductor Controlled

Rectifier) is a four layer solid state device that controls
current flow
 The name “silicon controlled rectifier” is a trade name for the
type of thyristor commercialized at General Electric in 1957
Silicon Controlled Rectifier

 An SCR can be seen as a conventional rectifier controlled by

a gate signal
 It is a 4-layered 3-terminal device
 When the gate to cathode voltage exceeds a certain threshold,
the device turns 'on' and conducts current
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
 PHYSICS OF OPEARATION

The principle of thyristor operation can be explained with the

use of its two-transistor model (or two-transistor analogy).
Fig. 4.15 (a) shows schematic diagram of a thyristor. From
this figure, two-transistor model is obtained by bisecting the
two middle layers, along the dotted line, in two separate
halves as shown in Fig. 4.15 (b). In this figure, junctions J1 –
J2 and J2 -J3 can be considered to constitute pnp and npn
transistors separately. The circuit representation of the two-
transistor model of a thyristor is shown in Fig. 4.15 (c).
 In the off-state of a transistor, collector current Ic is related to emitter
current IE as
IC = αIE + ICBO
where α is the common-base current gain and ICB0 is the common-base
leakage current of collector-base junction of a transistor.
For transistor Q1 in Fig. 4.15 (c), emitter current IE = anode current Ia and IC
= collector current IC1. Therefore, for Q1
IC1 = α1 Ia +  ICBO1 ……..(4.3)
where      α1 = common-base current gain of Q1
and          ICBO1  = common-base leakage current of Q1
Similarly, for transistor Q2, the collector current IC2 is given by
IC2 = α2 Ik +  ICBO2 …(4.4)
where      α2 – common-base current gain of Q2,ICBO2 =common-base
leakage current of Q2 and
Ik = emitter current of Q2.
 The sum of two collector currents given by Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4) is
equal to the external circuit current   Iα entering at anode terminal A.
There fore   Ia = IC1 + IC2
Ia = α1 Ia + ICBO1+ α2 Ik +  ICBO2 …(4.5)
When gate current is applied, then Ik = Ia + Ig . Substituting this value of
Ik in Eq. (4.5) gives
Ia = α1 Ia + ICBO1+ α2 (Ia + Ig ) +  ICBO2
or
Ia = α2 Ig + ICBO1 + ICBO2 /[1-( α1+ α2)]
BIASING ARRANGEMENT
STATIC/V-I CHARACTERISTICS
SWITCHING/DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
 TURN OFF CHARACTERISTICS
Once the thyristor is on, gate loses control. The
SCR can be turned off by reducing the anode
current below holding current . If forward voltage
is applied to the SCR at the moment its anode
current falls to zero, the device will not be able to
block this forward voltage as the carriers (holes
and electrons) in the four layers are still
favourable for conduction. The device will
therefore go into conduction immediately even
though gate signal is not applied. In order to
obviate such an occurrence, it is essential that
the thyristor is reverse biased for a finite period
after the anode current has reached zero
The turn-off time tq of a thyristor is defined as
the time between the instant anode current
becomes zero and the instant SCR regains
forward blocking capability. During time tq ,all
the excess carriers from the four layers of
SCR must be removed. This removal of
excess carriers consists of sweeping out of
holes from outer p-layer and electrons from
outer n-layer. The carriers around junction J2
can be removed only by recombination. The
turn-off time is divided into two intervals ;
reverse recovery time trr and the gate
recovery time tg r ; i.e. tq = trr + tgr.
*At instant t,anode current becomes zero. After t l
l
anode current builds up in the reverse direction
with the same di/dt slope as before t l

*The reason for the reversal of anode current

after t l is due to the presence of carriers stored in
the four layers. The reverse recovery current
removes excess carriers from the end junctions J 1
and J3 between the instants t l and t 3. In other
words, reverse recovery current flows due to the
sweeping out of holes from top p-layer and
electrons from bottom n-layer.
At instant t 2, when about 60% of the stored charges
are removed from the outer two layers, carrier
density across J1 and J3 begins to decrease and with
this reverse recovery current also starts decaying.
The reverse current decay is fast in the beginning
but gradual thereafter. The fast decay of recovery
current causes a reverse voltage across the device
due to the circuit inductance. This reverse voltage
surge appears across the thyristor terminals and
may therefore damage it. In practice, this is avoided
by using protective RC elements across SCR.
At instant t3 , when reverse recovery current
has fallen to nearly zero value, end junctions
J1 and J3 recover and SCR is able to block the
reverse voltage

At the end of reverse recovery period (t3 -the

middle junction J2 still has trapped charges,
therefore, the thyristor is not able to block the
forward voltage at t3 The trapped charges around
J2, i.e. in the inner two layers, cannot flow to the
external circuit, therefore, these trapped charges
must decay only by recombination.
This recombination is possible if a reverse voltage is
maintained across SCR, though the magnitude of
this voltage is not important. The rate of
recombination of charges is independent of the
external circuit parameters. The time for the
recombination of charges between t3 and t4 is called
gate recovery time tgr

At instant t 4, junction J2 recovers and the forward

voltage can be reapplied between anode and
cathode.
The thyristor turn-off time tq is in the range of 3
to 100 µsec. The turn-off time is influenced by
the magnitude of forward current, di/dt at the
time of commutation and junction temperature.
An increase in the magnitude of these factors
increases the thyristor turn-off time.
Converter grade SCRs, Inverter-grade SCRs
Thyristors with slow turn-off time (50 – 100 (usee)
are called converter grade SCRs and those with
fast turn-off time (3 – 50 µsec) are called inverter-
grade SCRs.
Converter-grade SCRs are cheaper and are used
where slow turn-off is possible as in phase-
controlled rectifiers, ac voltage controllers,
cycloconverters etc. Inverter-grade SCRs are
costlier and are used in inverters, choppers and
force-commutated converters.
 GATE CHARACTERISTICS
For a particular type of SCRs, Vg-Ig characteristic has a
spread between two curves 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 4.9.

*curve 1 represents the lowest voltage values that must be

applied to turn-on the SCR. Curve 2 gives the highest
possible voltage values that can be safely applied to gate
circuit.

*Each thyristor has maximum limits as V gm for gate voltage

and Igm for gate current. There is also rated (average) gate
power dissipation Pgav specified for each SCR. These limits
should not be exceeded in order to avoid permanent
damage of junction J3, Fig. 4.3. There are also minimum
limits for Vg and Ig for reliable turn-on, these are represented
As stated before, if Vgm , Igm and Pgav are
exceeded, the thyristor can be destroyed. This
shows that preferred gate drive area for an SCR
is bcdefghb as shown in Fig. 4.9.

A non-triggering gate voltage is also prescribed

by the manufacturers of SCRs. This is indicated
by oa in Fig. 4.9. If firing circuit generates positive
gate signal prior to the desired instant of
triggering the SCR, it should be ensured that this
unwanted signal is less than the non-triggering
gate voltage oa. At the same time, all spurious or
noise signals should be less than the voltage oa.
 THYRISTOR PROTECTION
A thyristor may be subjected to overvoltages or
overcurrents. During SCR turn-on, di/dt may be
prohibitively large. There may be false triggering
of SCR by high value of dv/dt. A spurious signal
across gate-cathode terminals may lead to
unwanted turn-on. A thyristor must be protected
against all such abnormal conditions for
satisfactory and reliable operation of SCR circuit
and the equipment..
di/dt protection.
When a thyristor is forward biased and is
turned on by a gate pulse, conduction of
anode current begins in the immediate
neighbourhood of the gate-cathode
junction, Fig. 4.6 (a). Thereafter, the
current spreads across the whole area of
junction. The thyristor design permits
the spread of conduction to the whole
junction area as rapidly as possible.
However, if the rate of rise of anode current,
i.e. di/dt, is large as compared to the spread
velocity of carriers, local hot spots will be
formed near the gate connection on account
of high current density. This localised
heating may destroy the thyristor. Therefore,
the rate of rise of anode current at the time
of turn-on must be kept below the specified
limiting value. The value of di/dt can be
maintained below acceptable limit by using a
small inductor, called di/dt inductor, in series
with the anode circuit. Typical di/dt limit
values of SCRs are 20-500 A/µ sec.
dv/dtprotection
With forward voltage across the anode
and cathode of a thyristor, the two outer
junctions are forward biased but the
inner junction is reverse biased. This
reverse biased junction J2,
If the rate of rise of forward voltage dVa/dt is high,
the charging current i will be more.This charging
current plays the role of gate current and turns on
the SCR even when gate signal is zero. Such
phenomena of turning-on a thyristor, called dv/dt
turn-on must be avoided as it leads to false
operation of the thyristor circuit. For controllable
operation of the thyristor, the rate of rise of forward
anode to cathode voltage dVa/dt must be kept below
the specified rated limit. Typical values of dv/dt are
20 – 500 V/µsec. False turn-on of a thyristor by large
dv/dt can be prevented by using a snubber circuit in
parallel with the device
A SNUBBER CIRCUIT
A snubber circuit consists of a series
combination of resistance Rs and capacitance Cs
in parallel with the thyristor as shown in Fig. 4.25.
Strictly speaking, a capacitor Cs in parallel with
the device is sufficient to prevent unwanted dv/dt
triggering of the SCR. When switch S is closed, a
sudden voltage appears across the circuit.
Capacitor Cs behaves like a short circuit,
therefore voltage across SCR is zero. With the
passage of time, voltage across Cs builds up at a
slow rate such that dv/dt across Cs and therefore
across SCR is less than the specified maximum
dv/dt rating of the device.
 WHY Rs??

Before SCR is fired by gate pulse, Cs charges

to full voltage Vs. When the SCR is turned on,
capacitor discharges through the SCR and
sends a current equal to Vs / (resistance of local
path formed by Cs and SCR). As this resistance
is quite low, the turn-on di/dt will tend to be
excessive and as a result, SCR may be
destroyed. In order to limit the magnitude of
discharge current, a resistance Rs is inserted in
series with Cs as shown in Fig. 4.25. Now when
SCR is turned on, initial discharge current Vs/Rs
is relatively small and turn-on di/dt is reduced.
 OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
Thyristors are very sensitive to overvoltages
just as other semi-conductor devices are.
Overvoltage transients are perhaps the main
cause of thyristor failure. Transient overvoltages
cause either maloperation of the circuit by
unwanted turn-on of a thyristor or permanent
damage to the device due to reverse
breakdown. A thyristor may be subjected to
internal or external overvoltages ; the former is
caused by the thyristor operation whereas the
latter comes from the supply lines or the load
circuit.
OVER CURENT PROTECTION
Thyristors have small thermal time constants.
Therefore, if a thyristor is subjected to overcurrent due
to faults, short circuits or surge currents ; its junction
temperature may exceed the rated value and the
device may be damaged. There is thus a need for the
overcurrent protection of SCRs.

overcurrent protection in thyristor circuits is achieved

through the use of circuit breakers and fast-acting
fuses as shown in Fig. 4.29
An electronic crowbar protection provides rapid
isolation of the power converter before any damage
occurs
Fig. 4.28 illustrates the basic principle of electronic
crowbar protection. A crowbar thyristor is connected
across the input dc terminals. A current sensing resistor
detects the value of converter current. If it exceeds
preset value, gate circuit provides the signal to crowbar
SCR and turns it on in a few microseconds. The input
terminals are then short-circuited by crowbar SCR and
it shunts away the converter overcurrent. The crowbar
thyristor current depends upon the source voltage and
its impedance. After some time, main fuse interrupts the
fault current. The fuse may be replaced by a circuit
breaker if SCR has adequate surge current rating.
 GATE PROTECTION
Gate circuit should also be protected against
overvoltages and over currents. Overvoltages
across the gate circuit can cause false triggering of
the SCR. Overcurrent may raise junction
temperature beyond specified limit leading to its
damage. Protection against over-voltages is
achieved by connecting a zener diode ZD across
the gate circuit. A resistor R2 connected in series
with the gate circuit provides protection against
overcurrents.
obtained by using shielded cables or twisted gate
leads..
A common problem in thyristor circuits is that
they suffer from spurious, or noise, firing.
Turning-on or turning-off of an SCR may
induce trigger pulses in a nearby SCR.
Sometimes transients in a power circuit may
also cause unwanted signal to appear across
the gate of a neighbouring SCR. These
undesirable trigger pulses may turn on the
SCR leading to false operation of the main
SCR. Gate protection against such spurious
firing is
A varying flux caused by nearby transients
cannot pass through twisted gate leads or
shielded cables. As such no e.m.f. is induced
in these cables and spurious firing of thyristors
is thus minimised. A capacitor and a resistor
are also connected across gate to cathode to
bypass the noise signals, Fig. 4.29. The
capacitor should be less than 0.1 µF and must
not deteriorate the waveshape of the gate
pulse
 GTO (GATE TURN OFF THYRISTOR)

A gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) is a special

type of thyristor, a high-power semiconductor
device. GTOs, as opposed to normal
thyristors, are fully controllable switches
which can be turned on and off by their third
lead, the GATE lead.
GTO SYMBOL
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
 STATIC V-I CHARACTERISTICS

latching current for large power GTO is several

amperes here 2A as compared to 100-500mA
for conventional thyristors of same rating