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Data Collection Methods

CHAPTER 10

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Chapter Objectives
 Know the difference between primary and
secondary data and their sources.
 Know the advantages and disadvantages of each

method.
 Make logical decisions as to the appropriate

data collection methods for specific study.


 Demonstrate your skills in interviewing

others to collect data.

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Chapter Objectives
 Design questionnaires to tap different
variables.
 Evaluate questionnaires, distinguishing the

“good” and “bad” questions therein.


 Apply what you have learned to class

assignments and projects.

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Sources of Data
 There are two sources of data:
1. Primary sources: Refer to information
obtained firsthand by the researcher on the
variables of interest for the specific purpose
of the study. Examples of sources of
Primary data are individuals, focus groups,
the internet could also serve as a primary
data source when questionnaires are
administered over it.

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Sources of Data
2. Secondary sources: Refer to information
gathered from sources already existing from
several sources. As for example, company
records, government publications, industry
analyses offered by the media, web sites, the
internet, and so on.

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Data collection Methods
 Data collection Methods are an integral part
of research design. There are several data
collection methods, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages.

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Data collection Methods
 Data collection methods include three main
methods:
1- Interviewing: It could be unstructured or
structured interviews.
2- Questionnaires
3- Other Methods of Data Collection

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Unstructured Interviews
 Unstructured Interviews are so labeled
because the interviewer does not enter the
interview setting with a planned sequence
of questions to be asked of the respondent.
 The objective of the unstructured interview

is to bring some preliminary issues to the


surface so that the researcher can
determine what variables need further in-
depth investigation.

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Structured Interviews
 Structured Interviews are those conducted when it
is known at the outset what information is needed.
 The interviewer has a list of predetermined
questions to be asked of the respondents either
personally, through the telephone or through the
medium of a PC.
 The questions are likely to focus on factors that
had surfaced during the unstructured interviews
and are considered relevant to the problem.

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Interviewing
 The unstructured and structured interviews
have several forms:
Interviews Face-to-face
Telephone interviews
Electronic media interviews

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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique
 Funneling
In the beginning of an unstructured interview, it
is advisable to ask open-ended questions to get a
broad idea and form some impressions about the
situation. For example a question that could be
asked, would be:
“what are some of your feelings about working
for this organization?”

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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique
Unbiased Questions
It is important to ask questions in a way that would
ensure the least bias in the response. For example:
“Tell me how you experience your job”
this question is better than,
“The work you do must be really boring; let me
hear how you experience it”

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 The Questioning Technique
 Clarifying Issues
To make sure that the researcher understands
issues as the respondent intends to represent
them, it is advisable to restate or rephrase
important information given by the respondent. For
example, if the interviewee says,
“There is an unfair promotion policy in this
organization; seniority does not count at all. It is
the juniors who always get promoted”.
The researcher might interject and ask,
“So you are saying that juniors always get
promoted over the heads of even capable seniors.”
I
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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique

Helping the Respondent to Think Through Issues.


If the respondent is not able to verbalize his
perceptions, or replies, “I don’t know,” the
researcher should ask the question in a simpler way
or rephrase it. For example, the respondent might
be asked which task he would prefer to do: serve a
customer or do some filing work. If the answer is
“serve the customer,” the researcher might use
another aspect of the respondent’s job and ask the
paired-choice question again. The respondent can
sort out which aspects of the job he likes better
than others.

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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique
Taking Notes
when conducting interviews, it is important that
the researcher makes written notes as the
interviews are taking place, or as soon as the
interview is terminated. The interviewer should
not rely on memory. Information based solely on
recall introduces bias into the research.
The interviews can be recorded on tape if the
respondent has no objections.

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Advantages and disadvantages of
Interviews

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Advantages and disadvantages of
Interviews

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Tips for Interviews

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Data collection Methods
2- Administering Questionnaires
Personally administered.
Sent through the mail.
Electronically administered.

Other techniques.

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questionnaires

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Questionnaire Design

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Questionnaire Administration

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Guidelines for Questionnaire Design

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Ambiguous Questions
 Ambiguously worded and respondent may
not be sure what exactly they mean.

◦ To what extent would you say you are happy.

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Recall Dependent
 Requires respondent to recall experience or
event from the past that are hazy in their
memory.
◦ When you started working in this department,
environment was not good.

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Loaded Questions
 Emotionally charged questions.

Domestic Violence
 Have you stopped beating your wife?
 How much you think these qualities lack in

you.

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Leading Questions
 That lead the respondent to give the
response s that the researcher would like or
want them to give.
◦ Don’t you think that in these days of escalating
costs of living , employees should be given good
pay raises?
 BETTER
 To what extent do you agree that employees should be
given higher pay raises?

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 Double Barreled Questions
 A question that lends itself to different

possible responses to its subparts .Two or


more separate questions should be asked.
◦ Do you think there is a good market for the product
and that it will sell well.

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Socially desirability
Includes socially desirable response.

Do you think that older people should be laid


off?

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 Positively and Negatively Worded Questions
It is advisable to include some negatively
worded questions as well .
q.1 I feel I have been able to accomplish a
number of different things in my job.
q.2 I do not feel I am very effective in my job.

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Guidelines for Questionnaire Design

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Guidelines for Questionnaire Design

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Guidelines for Questionnaire Design
 Classification Data or Personal Information.
Personal information elicit such information
as age, educational level, marital status, and
income.
 Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to
ask for the name of the respondent.
 It is a matter of choice for the researcher to
let the personal information appears in the
beginning or at the end of the
questionnaire.

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Guidelines for Questionnaire Design
 Classification Data or Personal Information.
 It is a wise policy to ask for the personal
information by providing a range of response
options, rather than asking exact figures. For
example, the variables can be tapped as
shown below:

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Guidelines for Questionnaire Design
 Example 10.1
Age (years) Annual Income
 Under 20 □ Less than $20,000
20 – 30 □ $20,000-30,000
31 – 40 □ $30,001-40,000
41 – 50 □ $40,001-50,000
51 – 60 □ $50,001-70,000
Over 60 □ $ Over 70,000

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Principles of Measurement
 There are some principles of measurement
to be followed to ensure that the data
collected are appropriate to test our
hypotheses.
 These refer to the scales and scaling

techniques used in measuring concepts, as


well as the assessment of reliability and
validity or the measures used, which were
all discussed before.

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Principles of Measurement
 Appropriate scales have to be used depending on
the type of data that need to be obtained.
 Wherever possible, the interval and ratio scales
should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal
scales.
 Once data are obtained, the “goodness of data” is
assessed through tests of validity and reliability.
Validity establishes how well a technique,
instrument, or process measures a particular
concept, and reliability indicates how stably and
consistently the instrument taps the variable.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
 It is necessary to pay attention to how the
questionnaire looks. An attractive and neat
questionnaire have the following elements:
A good introduction
Organizing questions
 Giving instructions and guidance
Good alignment
These elements are briefly discussed with
examples.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
 Exercise 1
A production manager wants to assess the
reactions of the blue-collar workers in his
department to the introduction of computer-
integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems. He is
particularly interested to know how they would
perceive the effects of CIM on:
a. their future jobs
b. additional training that they will have to
receive
c. future job advancement.
 Design a questionnaire for the production
manager.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
Questionnaire
Jordan Software Enterprises
P.O.Box 2231
Amman-Jordan
Date-----
Dear Employee,
As we had discussed in our meetings, Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) will form a part of our operations in the future.
We would like to know how you visualize certain aspects of the
future environment as we introduce the changes.
Please take a few minutes to complete this short questionnaire and
return it to the locked box in the headquarter office.
Thank you for responding within the next five days.
Ahmad Rasheed
Production Manager

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
1. Personal information ( place a mark on the
appropriate place)
Job Status Number of years
Worked in the Department
--Machinist -- Less than 1
--Inspector -- 1-2--
--Forman -- 3-5
--Surveyor -- 5-10
-- Other -- Over 10 years

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
2. Your Opinion regarding the following.
Please circle the appropriate number for each of the
following items using the scale below.
Strongly Neither Agree Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5
1. I will need additional training 1 2 3 4 5
to work in the changed
environment.
2. The new system will offer me 1 2 3 4 5
better opportunities for
advancement.
3. The opportunities for training 1 2 3 4 5
will have to be enhanced with
CIM.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
4. I am not sure if CIM will need 1 2 3 4 5
all the people we now have in
this department.
5. I feel that most of us may not 1 2 3 4 5
have better opportunities for future
promotions in the new manufacturing
environment.
6. Most of us will need special 1 2 3 4 5
training to work with CIM.
7. I am sure the future looks bright 1 2 3 4 5
for most of us here.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
 Items 4 and 7 measure opinion about their
future jobs.
 1, 3, and 6 measure perceived training needs.
 2, and 5 measure job advancement.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
 Exercise 2
The president of Mideast Co. suspects that
most of the 500 male and female
employees of the organization are
somewhat alienated from work.
He is also of the view that those who are
more involved (less alienated) are also the
ones who experience greater satisfaction
with their work lives.
 Design a questionnaire the president could
use to test his hypothesis.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
 Before we can design a questionnaire, we
need to list the variables to be tapped and
operationally define the more abstract
concepts. The following variables are
mentioned in the study:
1. Involvement (or the other end, alienation).
2. Satisfaction with work life.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
 The following demographic variables might be of
interest to the study:
3. Gender
4. Tenure (number of years in the organization)
5. Job level
6. Age
7. Education
 These demographic variables help to describe the
sample, also, they might have an influence on the
involvement (or alienation) of the employees, their
level of satisfaction, and the relationship between
the two.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
 Operational Definition of Involvement would include the
dimensions of the job being of central interest to individuals,
and the major happiness being derived from the job. Low
involvement can be considered as alienation.
 Items that measure involvement are:
1. The major happiness of my life is derived from my job.

2. Time at work flies by quickly.


3. Working here is boring.
4. Nothing in life is as important as work.
5. I live, eat, and breathe my job.
6. My work helps me establish who I am.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
 Operational Definition of Satisfaction would
include dimensions of satisfactions with various
aspects of the work environment such as with
pay, supervision, promotion, and the like.
 Questions that describe satisfaction at work place
are:
To what extent would you agree with the
following statements?
1. My work is fascinating.
2. My work gives me a sense of accomplishment.
3. My supervisor praises good work.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
4. My pay is barely adequate to take care of my
expenses.
5. My co-workers are very stimulating.
6. The opportunities for advancement are very
good here.
7. I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace.
8. People can live comfortably with their pay in
this organization.
9. My supervisor is not very capable.
10. The promotion policies here are very unfair.

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Questionnaire
Mideast Company, Inc.
P.O.Box 2345
Amman-Jordan
December 4, 2006

Dear Employee,
As the president of your company, I am interested in conducting
a mini survey on your reactions to working in this organization.
Your responses would give me an indication of any changes that
may be necessary for offering you a better quality of work life.
Your honest and straightforward answers will aid me to help
you. I do not need your names- only truthful answers.
Suggestions from you will be implemented by a Committee if
considered suitable.
Thank you for responding within a week’s time.
My best wishes
Mohammad Al-Farouki, President

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
Please check the blanks most appropriate for the
items below.
Personal Data
Department in which you are
working:-------------
i. Age (years) ii. Education iii. Sex
- under 25 - high school -F
- 25-35 - college -M
- 36-45 - bachelor’s degree
- 46-55 - master’s degree
- over 55 - doctoral degree
- other

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
iv. Job Level v. Number of years in
this
organization
- manager - less than 1
- supervisor - 1-3
- clerk - 4-8
- secretary - 9-15
- technician - over 15 years
- other (specify)

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
2. Here are some questions that ask you to tell
us how experience your work life in general.
Please circle the appropriate number of the
scales below.
On a scale of 1 to 5, (1) denoting very low
agreement and (5) denoting very high
agreement, to what extent would you agree
with the following statements?

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
Very Very
Low High
1. The major happiness
Of my life is derived
From my job. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Time at work flies by
Quickly. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Working here is boring 1 2 3 4 5
4. Nothing in life is more
important than work. 1 2 3 4 5
5. I live, eat , and breathe
my job. 1 2 3 4 5

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
6. My work helps me
establish who I am. 1 2 3 4 5
7. My work is fascinating. 1 2 3 4 5
8. My work gives me a
sense of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 5
9. My supervisor praises
good work. 1 2 3 4 5
10.My pay is not adequate 1 2 3 4 5
to take care of my
expenses.
11.My co-workers are
very stimulating. 1 2 3 4 5

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
12.The opportunity for
advancement is very
good here. 1 2 3 4 5
13.I get a lot of co-
operation at the
workplace. 1 2 3 4 5
14.People can live comfortably
with their pay in this
organization. 1 2 3 4 5

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire: Exercise 2
15.My supervisor is not
much capable. 1 2 3 4 5
16.The promotion policies
here are very unfair. 1 2 3 4 5
In the space provided below, please make any
comments you wish regarding any aspect of the
work or organization. Your suggestions for
improvement will be very much appreciated.
Thank you

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Data collection Methods: Other
Methods of Data Collection
3- Observational Surveys.
It is possible to gather data without asking
questions of respondents. People can be observed
in their natural work environment or in the lab
setting, and their activities and behaviors can be
noted and recorded.
 People movements, work habits, their facial
expressions of joy, anger, and other emotions ,
and body language can be observed.

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Observational Surveys
 The researcher can play one of two roles
while gathering field observational data:
Nonparticipant-Observer
Participant-Observer

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Nonparticipant-Observer
 The researcher may collect the needed data
without becoming an integral part of the
organizational system.
 For example, the researcher might sit in the
corner of an office and watch and record
how the manager spends his time.
 Observation of all the activities of
managers, over a period of several days, will
allow the researcher to make some
generalizations on how managers spend
their time.

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Participant-Observer
 The researcher may play the role of the
participant-observer. The researcher enters
the organization or the research setting,
and becomes a part of the work team.
 For instance, if a researcher wants to study
group dynamics in work organization, then
he may join the organization as an
employee and observe the dynamics in
groups while being a part of the work
groups.

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Structured Versus Unstructured
Observational Studies
 Structured Observational Studies
Both the nonparticipant-observer and
participant-observer could be either
structured or unstructured.

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Structured Versus Unstructured
Observational Studies
 Structured Observational Studies
The observer has a predetermined set of
categories of activities or phenomena
planned to be studied.
 People can be observed in their natural
work environment and their normal activities
and behaviors, and can be noted and
recorded.

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Structured Versus Unstructured
Observational Studies
 Unstructured Observational Studies
If the observer has no definite ideas of the
particular aspects that need focus, he could
record everything that is observed.

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Mechanical Observation
 Machines can provide data by recording the
events of interest as they occur, without a
researcher being physically present. Films
and electronic recording devices such as
video cameras can be used to record data.
Such mechanically observed data are error-
free.

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Advantages of Observational Studies
1. The data are more reliable and free from
respondent bias.
2. It is easier to note the effects of environmental
influences on specific outcomes.
3. It is easier to observe certain groups of individuals
whom are unable to give information
( like small children).
4. It captures the attitudes, facial expressions and
other nonverbal behaviors, but cannot capture the
thought of the individuals.
5. Observer have to be trained in what and how to
observe, and ways to avoid observer bias.

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Disadvantages of Observational
Studies
1. It is necessary for the observer to be
physically present over a long period of
time (unless a camera or another
mechanical system can capture the events
of interest).
2. It is slow, tedious, and expensive.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of
Summary of Observational Studies

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Mulimethods of Data Collection

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Ethics and the Researcher
Several ethical issues should be addressed
while collecting data. These pertain to:
 those who sponsor the research
 those who collect the data
 and those who offer them.

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Ethics and the Sponsors
1. The sponsors should ask for the study to be done
to better the purpose of the organization, and not
for any other self-serving reason.
2. They should respect the confidentiality of the data
obtained by the researcher, and not ask for the
individual or group responses to be disclosed to
them, or ask to see the questionnaires.
3. They should have an open mind in accepting the
results and recommendations in the report
presented by the researcher.

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Ethics and the Researcher
1. Treating the information given by the
respondent as strictly confidential and
guarding his privacy is one of the primary
responsibilities of the researcher.
2. The researcher should not misrepresent
the nature of the study to subjects,
especially in lab experiments. The purpose
of the research must be explained to
them.

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Ethics and the Researcher
3. Personal information should not be
solicited, and if it is absolutely necessary
for the project, it should be tapped with
high sensitivity to the respondent, offering
specific reasons therefore.
4. Whatever be the nature of data collection
method, the self-esteem and self-respect
of the subjects should never be violated.

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Ethics and the Researcher
5. No one should be forced to respond to
the survey .
6. Nonparticipant-observers should be as
nonintrusive as possible. His personal
values could easily bias the data.
7. Subjects should never be exposed to
situations where they could be subject to
physical or mental harm.
8. There should be absolutely no
misrepresentation or distortion in
reporting the data collected during the
study.

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Ethical Behavior of the Respondents
1. The subject, once having exercised the
choice to participate in a study, should
cooperate fully in the tasks ahead, such as
responding to a survey or taking part in an
experiment.
2. The respondent also has an obligation to
be truthful and honest in the responses.
Misrepresentation or giving information,
knowing it to be untrue, should be
avoided.

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Practice Exercise on Good and Bad
Questions
Comment on each of the following
questions stating whether they are good or
bad and the reasons for your answer. Do
not worry about their scaling.
1. If you have been in the company for over
15 years, please indicate the date of your
joining this company.
2. My boss is good but excitable in his
dealing with others.
3. Working women should opt not to have
children.

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Practice Exercise on Good and Bad
Questions
4. Investment in children’s future should be an
important goal of the administration.
5. This job uses a lot of the skills that I
possess.
6. If this country is to remain competitive,
should we not be spending more on research?

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Answers
1. Bad question: recall dependent.
2. Bad: Double-barreled.
3. Bad: Loaded question; an emotional issue
for women.
4. Bad: Social desirability.
5. Good question. No problem with wording.
6. Bad question: Leading question.

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Practice Exercise on Data Collection
 What data collection methods would most
appropriately be used for the following and why?
a. A study of audience reactions to a political
speaker.

Answer: Both observation and unstructured


interviews.
b. A study of students’ reactions to how the
University is run.
Answer: Probably a short questionnaire, with
an open-ended question at the end.

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Practice Exercise on Data Collection
c. A study of the student parking problems in
Yarmouk University area.
Answer: unstructured interviews in the
beginning, and later, a short questionnaire.
d. A study of the performance of Yarmouk U.
graduates in their jobs.
Answer: A questionnaire to the employers.
e. A study by the university head seeking the student
opinions about the quality of education in their
departments.
Answer: In the beginning, unstructured
interviews and later, a questionnaire.

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