Chapter 2:

The Structure of the

Atom
Presented by :
Wan Nur Syazwani Wan Mohd
Ludin
2.1 : Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has
mass.
Matter can either exist as an element or a
compound
An element consists of only one type of atom
and the particles can be either atoms or molecules.
A compound is usually makes up of two or more
elements which are chemically bonded together.
A compound is made up of either molecules or ions
An atom is the smallest neutral particle of an
element.
A molecule is a neutral particle made up of either
atoms of the same element or atoms of different
elements.
An ion is a positively-charged or negatively-
charged particles.
Particles in matter are in motion. This has been
confirmed by many experiments such as diffusion
of bromine.
Diffusion occurs when particles of a substance move in
between the particles of another substance
The rate of diffusion of gas particles depends on
their masses.
(a) Gases with low molecular masses diffuse
faster than those with high molecular masses.
The rate of diffusion is affected by the
temperature. 
(a) The higher the temperature, the faster the
particles move and so the faster the diffusion.
(b) For example, the colour of potassium
manganate(VII) spreads through the water much
more quickly in hot water than in cold water.
Kinetic theory of matter
The differences between a solid, liquid and gas in
terms of arrangement, movement, forces of
attraction and energy contents are as follows:
State Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement The particles are The particles are The particles are very
of particles packed closely packed closely far apart from each
together in an together but not in other and in a random
orderly manner. an orderly arrangement.
arrangement.
Kinetic theory of matter
The differences between a solid, liquid and gas in
terms of arrangement, movement, forces of
attraction and energy contents are as follows:
State Solid Liquid Gas
Movement The particles can The particles can The particles can
of particles only vibrate and vibrate, rotate and vibrate, rotate and
rotate about their move throughout move freely. The
fixed positions. the liquid. They rate of collision is
collide against greater than the rate
each other. of collision in a
liquid.
Kinetic theory of matter
The differences between a solid, liquid and gas in
terms of arrangement, movement, forces of
attraction and energy contents are as follows:
State Solid Liquid Gas
Forces of There are strong The particles are There are weak
attraction forces between the held together by forces between the
between particles. strong forces but particles.
particles weaker than the
forces in a solid.
Kinetic theory of matter
The differences between a solid, liquid and gas in
terms of arrangement, movement, forces of
attraction and energy contents are as follows:
State Solid Liquid Gas
Energy Low energy Higher energy Highest energy
content of content as content as particles content as
particles movement is can move easily. movement is at
restricted. random.
Kinetic theory of matter
According to the Kinetic Theory of matter, matter
is made up of particles which are constantly
moving. These particles collide with one another
and are affected when heat is provided
Kinetic theory of matter
At higher temperatures, the particles move at a
faster rate. At lower temperatures, they move
slowly. 
All matter, existing in the form of solids, liquids and gases,
can change from one state to another as a result of a change
in heat.
Kinetic theory of matter
The inter-conversion of the states of matter is
given in the diagram below: 
Kinetic theory of matter
When a substance is heated or cooled its physical
state alters with a corresponding change in energy:
 (a) During melting, evaporation/ boiling and
sublimation (solid  gas), heat is absorbed by
substance. In all these physical processes,
temperature rises.
Kinetic theory of matter
When a substance is heated or cooled its physical
state alters with a corresponding change in energy:
(b) During freezing, condensation and
sublimation (gas  solid), heat energy is
released and temperature drops.
Changes in matter state
The changes in the states of matter are caused by
heating or cooling. For example, ice melts when
it is heated and water changes into ice when it is
frozen
Changes in matter state
The kinetic theory of matter is used to explain the
changes in states of matter.
Changes in matter state
Melting :
When a solid is heated, the particles in the solid gain kinetic
energy and vibrate more vigorously
 The particles vibrate faster as the temperature increases until
the energy they gain is able to overcome the forces that hold
them at their fixed positions.
At this point, the solid becomes a liquid.
The temperature at which this happens is called the melting
point.
Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into
a liquid at a particular pressure.
Changes in matter state
Freezing
When a liquid is cooled, the particles in the liquid lose
energy and move slower.
As the temperature continues to drop, the particles continue
to lose more energy until they do not have enough energy to
move freely.
At this point, the liquid changes into a solid.
The temperature at which this happens is called the freezing
point.
Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes
into a solid at a particular pressure.
The Heating and Cooling curve
of Naphthalene
 Temperature (0C)

The heating curve of naphthalene

B C

At point A, naphthalene
exists as solid

Time ( min)
Temperature (0C)
The heating curve of naphthalene

When the solid is heated, heat energy

is absorbed. This causes the particles
to gain kinetic energy and vibrate D
faster. The temperature increases from
point A to point B.

B C

At point B :
 solid naphthalene begins to melt.
 During the melting process, the temperature of naphthalene
A does not rise even though heating continues.
 The temperature remains constant because the heat energy
absorbed by the particles is used to overcome the forces
between particles so that the solid can turn into a liquid.
 At this temperature, both solid and liquid are present.

Time ( min)
Temperature (0C)

The heating curve of naphthalene

B C

At point C, all the

solid naphthalene has
melted.
A

Time ( min)
Temperature (0C)

The heating curve of naphthalene

B C

From point C to point D, the particles

in liquid naphthalene absorb heat
energy and move faster. The
A
temperature increases from point C to
point D.

Time ( min)
Temperature (0C)

The cooling curve of naphthalene

At point E,
naphthalene exists as
liquid F G

Time ( min)
Temperature (0C)

The cooling curve of naphthalene

When the liquid is cooled, the particles in

the liquid lose their kinetic energy. They
E
move slower as the temperature decreases
from point E to point F.

F G

At point F, liquid naphthalene begins to freeze. During the

freezing process, the temperature of naphthalene remains
constant because the heat loss to the surroundings is H
balanced by the heat energy given off during freezing. At
this temperature, both solid and liquid are present.

Time ( min)
Temperature (0C)

The cooling curve of naphthalene

F G

At point G, all the liquid

naphthalene has frozen.
H

Time ( min)
Temperature (0C)

The cooling curve of naphthalene

From point G to point H, the particles in

E
solid naphthalene release heat energy and
vibrate slower. The temperature decreases
from point G to point H.

F G

Time ( min)
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