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‫بســـم الله الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫المحاضرة‬
‫الولى‬
‫من صـــفحة ‪20‬‬
‫الى صــفحة ‪36‬‬
PHYSIOLOGY
Nutrition ‫ة‬ ‫التغـﺫي‬
Series ‫سلسلة‬
Processes ‫عمليات‬
Takes in ‫يأخـﺫ‬
Assimilate ‫يمثل الطعام‬
Promote growth ‫تعزيز أو تشجيع النمو‬
Replace worn tissues ‫استبدال النسجة التالفة أو البالية‬

Animal nutrition: It is a series of processes by


which an animal takes in & assimilates the
various food substances needed to promote
growth & replace worn tissues.
Types of organisms
Autotrophs ‫ﺫاتى التغـﺫية‬
Phototrophs ‫الغتـﺫاء الضوئى‬
Chemotrophs ‫الغتـﺫاء الكيميائى‬
Heterotrphs ‫غير ﺫاتى التغـﺫية أو مختلف التغـﺫية‬
Saprozoic ‫يعيش على الرمم أو رمى التغـﺫية‬
Parasites ‫طفيليات‬

Autotrophs: -1that can synthesize all essential organic


compounds from inorganic sources. They include:
A-Phototrophs: the chlorophyll-containing green plants.
B-Chemotrophs .: the chemosynthetic bacteria

Heterotrophs: -2that require an intake of organic


compounds asmost animals.
Saprozoic:that can absorb large organic molecules
through body surfaces asa few animals. These animals are
.primarily parasites
Nutrition in mammals
Mammals ‫الثدييات‬
Nutritional requirements ‫المتطلبات الغـﺫائية‬
Minerals ‫المعادن‬

* Heterotrophic.
* The nutritional requirements of mammals can be
divided into:
1- Organic materials: such as carbohydrates, lipids
and proteins.
2- Vitamins
3- Inorganic nutrients such as minerals.
Carbohydrates -1

Derivatives ‫مشتقات‬
Hydrolyzed ‫ينحل مائيا‬
Constituents ‫مكونات‬
Glycosidic bonds ‫روابط جليكوسيديه‬
Hydrolysis ‫انحلل مائى‬
It is aldehyde or ketone derivatives of the polyhydric (more
.than one OH group) alcohols

They are classified into:


1- Monosaccharides (simple sugars): which can not be hydrolyzed
into simpler forms.
They may be subdivided (according to the number of carbon
atoms) into:
A- Trioses (3-carbon sugars).
B- Tetroses (4-carbon sugars).
C- Pentose (5-carbon sugars) such as ribose & deoxyribose which
are the main constituents of nucleic acids (DNA & RNA).
D- Hexoses (6-carbon sugars) such as glucose, fructose, galactose
& mannose which are physiologically the most important.
.Till we reach 10-carbon sugars
Disaccharides (double sugars): They are composed of 2 -2
molecules of monosaccharides which are united by a glycosidic
bonds. Sucrose, maltose & lactose are the most common
.disaccharides
3- Polysaccharides (complex sugars): which on hydrolysis yield
more than 6 molecules of monosaccharides. Glycogen, starch,
cellulose, dextrins, inulin & chitin are the most common
polysaccharides.
Glycogen
* It is the storage polysaccharide in the animal body.
** It is found in high amounts in liver & muscle.
*** It is called animal starch.
Lipids -2
Lipids ‫دهون‬
Solvents ‫مـﺫيبات‬
Waxes ‫شموع‬
Derived lipids ‫الدهون المشتقة‬
Energy ‫طاقة‬
Major constituents ‫مكونات رئيسية‬
Lipids have a common character which is being soluble in fat
.solvents

They are classified into:


1- Simple lipids: They are esters of fatty acids with various
alcohols.They include:
.A- Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol
R1-COOH HO-CH2 R1-COO-CH2
+
R2-COOH OH- CH R2-COO-CH
+
+
R3-COOH OH-CH2
R3-COO-CH2
fatty acids 3 Glycerol Fat

N.B. A fat in the liquid state is known as an oil.


B- Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with monohydric alcohols with
.higher molecular weight
Compound lipids: e.g. phospholipids -2
& glycolipids (carbohydrate-attached
lipids).
3- derived lipids: These are substances
derived from simple or compound Phospholipids
:lipids on hydrolysis such as
.Fatty acids, glycerol, steroids & ketone bodies

Functions of lipids:
1- serve as an efficient source of energy.
2- serve as a major constituents of the different membranes
.such as cell and nuclear membranes
Proteins -3
Carboxyl group ‫مجموعة كربوكسيل‬
Amino group ‫مجموعة أمين‬
Peptide bond ‫رابطة ببتيدية‬
Peptides ‫ببتيدات‬
Essential amino acids ‫أحماض أمينية أساسية‬
Diet ‫الطعام‬
Hair ‫شعر‬
Wool ‫صوف‬
Oxygen carriers ‫حوامل الكسجين مثل الهيموجلوبين‬
Muscular contraction ‫النقباض العضلى‬
Antibodies ‫الجسام المضادة‬
Cell organelles ‫عضيات الخلية‬
Proteins are complex organic nitrogenous substances with
high molecular weight.
The basic structural units are called amino acids.
Each of the 20 amino acids that occur in proteins contains a
carboxyl group (-COOH) and an amino group (-NH2) attached
to thesame. carbon atom
In the molecule of proteins, a carboxyl General
formula
group of one amino acid is linked to an of amino
acid
amino group of another amino acid
.forming a peptide bond

Peptides containing 2 amino acids are dipeptides,


those with 3 amino acids are tripeptides, etc.
Those with more than 10 amino acids are
.polypeptides
Types of amino acids
Non-essential amino acids: -1that can be synthesized in
.the cells representing 10 amino acids

Essential amino acids:--2that can not be synthesized in


the cells representing the other 10 amino acids and so they
must be present in the diet (leucine, isoleucine,
methionine, phenylalanine, histidine, arginine, lysine,
.(tryptophan, valine & threonine
Functions of proteins:
l- They have a main role in thestructure and function of the cell.
2- Allenzymes are proteins.
3- Serve asstructural elements of the body (e.g. hair, wool, …etc.),
others may behormones oroxygen carriers.
4- Participate inmuscular contraction.
5- Participate in the structure ofchromosomes ,antibodies andcell
.organelles
Vitamins -4
Small quantities ‫كميات صغيرة‬
Specific metabolic disorders ‫اضطرا بات أيضية معينة‬
Lacking ‫بسبب العوز أو الفقد‬
Symptoms of deficiency ‫أعراض النقص‬
Night blindness ‫العمى أو العشى الليلى‬
Retard growth ‫تأخر النمو‬
Disorder ‫اضطراب أو اختلل أو اعتلل‬
Rickets ‫كساح‬
Osteomalacia ‫لين العظام‬
Catabolism ‫هدم‬
Miscarriage ‫الجهاض أو السقاط‬
‫‪Sterility‬‬ ‫عقم‬
‫‪Clotting factors‬‬ ‫عوامل التجلط أو التخثر‬
‫‪Excessive bleeding‬‬ ‫النزيف الزائد‬
‫‪Retarded‬‬ ‫تأخر أو تخلف‬
‫‪Neuritis‬‬ ‫التهاب العصاب‬
‫‪Paralysis‬‬ ‫الشلل‬
‫‪Skin cracking‬‬ ‫تشقق الجلد‬
‫‪Fatigue‬‬ ‫الرهاق أو التعب‬
‫‪Citric acid cycle‬‬ ‫دورة حامض الستريك أو دورة كربس‬
‫‪Glycolysis‬‬ ‫انحلل السكر لمركبات بسيطة‬
‫‪Diarrhea‬‬ ‫السهال‬
‫‪Dermatitis‬‬ ‫التهاب الجلد‬
‫‪Mental disorder‬‬ ‫الضطراب العقلى‬
‫‪Macrocytic anemia‬‬ ‫النيميا نتيجة الخليا الدموية الحمراء العملقة‬
‫‪Pernicious anemia‬‬ ‫فقر الدم الخبيث‬
‫‪Hematopoiesis‬‬ ‫تكوين الدم‬
‫‪Erythrocyte‬‬ ‫كرة دموية حمراء‪( (RBC‬‬
‫‪Nucleic acid‬‬ ‫حمض نووى‬
‫‪Amino acid‬‬ ‫حمض أمينى‬
‫‪Collagen‬‬ ‫الكولجين )نوع من البروتين(‬
‫‪Defective bone‬‬ ‫عظم خرب أو به خلل‬
‫‪Wound healing‬‬ ‫التئام الجرح‬
‫‪Mental‬‬ ‫عقلى‬
‫‪Nausea‬‬ ‫غثيان أو دوار البحر‬
Vitamins are organic compounds needed in small quantities.
They can cause specific metabolic disorders when lacking in
the diet.
:Vitamins are divided into two main groups which are
water-soluble vitamins: which include: -1
* Vitamin B complex {thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2),
pantothenic acid (B5), niacin (nicotinic acid), pyridoxine (B6),
biotin, cobalamine (B12),folic acid}.
* Vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
* Vitamin H (biotin)- often considered as a part of vitamin B
.complex
-2Fat-soluble vitamins: which include:
* Vitamin A (retinol).
* Vitamin D (cholecalciferol, ergosterol).
* Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol).
.(* Vitamin K (phylloquinone
Fat- soluble vitamins
Vitamin Function Symptoms of deficiency
A :Necessary for .Night blindness *
.Rhodopsin synthesis * .Retard growth *
.Bone & teeth growth * .Skin disorders *
.Normal health of epithelial cells *
D .Promotes Ca & P use * .Rickets *
.Bone & teeth formation * .Osteomalacia *
E * Prevents catabolism of certain * Muscular dystrophy
fatty acids. & sterility.
* May prevents miscarriage.
K * Necessary for synthesis of a * Excessive bleeding
number of clotting factors. due to retarded blood
clotting.
Water- soluble vitamins
Vitamin Function Symptoms of deficiency
B1 Necessary for: * Growth. * Beriberi.
* Carbohydrate & amino acid * Muscle weakness.
metabolism. * Neuritis & paralysis.
B2 * Component of FAD (flavin * Eyes disorders.
adenine dinucleotide). * Skin cracking
* Involved in citric acid cycle. especially at corners of
the mouth.
Pantothenic * Constituent of coenzyme A. * Neuromuscular
acid * Glucose production from lipids & dysfunction & fatigue.
amino acids
* Steroid hormone synthesis.
* Component of NAD (nicotinamide * Pellagra & diarrhea.
B3 adenine dinucleotide). * Dermatitis & mental
* Involved in glycolysis & citric acid disturbance.
cycle.
(Water- soluble vitamins (continue
Vitamin Function Symptoms of deficiency
B6 Involved in amino acid * * Dermatitis.
.metabolism * Retard growth.
Folic acid .Nucleic acid synthesis * .Macrocytic anemia *
.Hematopoiesis *
B12 * Necessary for erythrocyte * Pernicious anemia.
production. * Nervous system
* Some nucleic acid & amino acid disorders.
metabolism.
(Water- soluble vitamins (continue
Vitamin Function Symptoms of deficiency
C :Necessary for .Scurvy *
.Collagen synthesis * Defective bone *
.General protein metabolism * .formation
.Poor wound healing *
H Fatty acid & purine * Mental & muscle *
(often considered .synthesis .dysfunction
a part of vitamin Movement of pyruvic acid * .Fatigue & nausea *
B complex) .into citric acid cycle
Minerals -5
Nutrients ‫مغـﺫيات‬
Macronutrients ‫مغـﺫيات كبيرة‬
Trace elements ‫عناصر أثرية‬
Poisonous ‫سام‬
Associated ‫مرافق أو مرتبط‬
Shares ‫يشارك‬
Impulse ‫سيال أو نبضة‬
Transmission ‫انتقال أو نقل‬
Blood clotting ‫تجلط الدم أو تخثره‬
Muscle contraction ‫انقباض العضلة‬
Vital ‫حيوى‬
Required ‫المطلوب‬
Mineralsare inorganic nutrients which may be:
* Macronutrients (needed in relatively large quantities) such as
sodium & potassium and
* Trace elements (needed in small amounts) such as cobalt,
iodine, copper, iron & zinc.
.N.B. large amounts of trace elements can be poisonous

Sodium (Na -1+): it is found mainly in extracellular fluid


associated with chloride & bicarbonate.
* It shares in the regulation of acid-base equilibrium.
* It shares in the maintenance of osmotic pressure.
2- Potassium (K+): it is found mainly in intracellular fluid
* It involves in nerve & muscle impulse transmission.
* It is the main constituent of bone & teeth.
.* It is required in blood clotting & muscle contraction
Cobalt: * It is a constituent of vitamin B -312.
* It is vital for the production of hemoglobin & red
blood cells.
4- Iodine: * It is a constituent of thyroxine hormone.
5- Copper: * It is vital for the activation of a variety of
enzymes.
* It is vital for the production of hemoglobin.
6- Iron: * It is a constituent of hemoglobin & myoglobin.
7- Zinc: * It is an activator of several enzymes.
. * It is required for the synthesis of insulin hormone
Digestion
Broken down ‫متكسر‬
Lumen of digestive tract ‫تجويف القناة الهضمية‬
Anus ‫فتحة الشرج‬
Digestive juices ‫العصارات الهضمية‬
Gastrointestinal ‫معدى معوى‬
Mastication ‫مضغ‬
Grind ‫طحن‬
Small pieces ‫قطع صغيرة‬
Bolus ‫بلبوعة أو بلعة أو مضغة‬
Reflex of smell, sight ‫رد فعل للشم والرؤية‬
Sought of food ‫البحث أو طلب الطعام‬
Initiates ‫يبدأ او يستهل‬
Buffering action ‫تأثير أو فعل منظم‬
Moistens and lubricates ‫يرطب ويزلق أو يزيت‬
Swallowed ‫يبتلع‬
‫‪Digestion‬‬
‫‪Subserves‬‬ ‫يقوى أو يساعد‬
‫‪Excreted‬‬ ‫يخرج )من الخراج(‬
‫‪Endocrine‬‬ ‫ل قنوى أو غدد صماء‬
‫‪Gastric glands‬‬ ‫غدد معدية‬
‫‪Entire‬‬ ‫كلى أو تام‬
‫‪Nervous stimulation‬‬ ‫التنشيط أو التحفيز العصبى‬
‫‪Contact‬‬ ‫تلمس‬
‫‪Releases‬‬ ‫ينطلق‬
‫‪Curdling‬‬ ‫التجبن أو التخثر‬
‫‪Human‬‬ ‫انسان أو بشر‬
‫‪Chyme‬‬ ‫كيموس أو خلصة الطعام المهضوم فى المعدة‬
‫‪Pyloric sphincter‬‬ ‫العضلة العاصرة البوابية‬
‫‪Major phase of digestion‬‬ ‫المرحلة الرئيسة للهضم‬
‫‪Bile‬‬ ‫الصفراء أو المرارة‬
‫‪Pancreatic juice‬‬ ‫العصارة البنكرياسية‬
‫‪Intestinal juice‬‬ ‫العصارة المعوية‬
‫‪Digestion‬‬
‫‪Contraction of gallbladder‬‬ ‫انقباض الحويصلة الصفراوية أو المرارية‬
‫‪Drains‬‬ ‫يفرغ‬
‫‪Bile salts‬‬ ‫أملح صفراوية‬
‫‪Bile pigments‬‬ ‫اصباغ صفراوية‬
‫‪Globules‬‬ ‫كرة صغيرة أو كرية‬
‫‪Fine droplets‬‬ ‫قطيرات دقيقة‬
‫‪Aggregating‬‬ ‫تجمع‬
‫‪Emulsification‬‬ ‫استحلب أو تحول الدهن الى مستحلب دهنى‬
‫‪Monoglycerides‬‬ ‫جلسريدات أحادية‬
‫‪Micelles‬‬ ‫مـﺫيلت )وحدات حيوية افتراضية(‬
Digestion is a process in which food are broken down into
simpler substances that can be absorbed.
It takes place in the lumen of digestive tract (alimentary canal).
Digestive tract started with mouth, pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine and ended with anus.
Food mixed with digestive juices (contain digestive enzymes)
which secreted from:
1- glandular tissues that found in the wall of gastrointestinal
wall, or
2- glands that lie outside the gastrointestinal tract such as
.salivary glands, pancreas and liver

Digestion of the major classes of food takes place in the mouth,


.stomach and small intestine
Digestion in the mouth -1
It comprises:
1- Mastication: where teeth cut and grind food to small pieces to
mix with saliva forming what is known as bolus.
2- Chemical digestion: where salivary amylase (ptyaline) acts on
.polysaccharides converting them to the disaccharides maltose
Saliva is secreted by 3 pairs of salivary glands (parotid,
submaxillary & sublingual).
* It is consisted ofwater, organic substances (e.g. amylase &
mucin) &inorganic substances (e.g. Cl-1, PO4-3, NaHCO3, Na &
K).
.* It has a pH between 6.0 & 7.4

The secretion of saliva is continuous and controlled by the


autonomic nervous system.
Its amount is increased as a result of a reflex of smell, sight or
.even the sought of food
Functions of saliva
It initiates the digestion of carbohydrates where salivary -1
amylase (ptyaline) acts on polysaccharides converting them into
maltose.
2- It has a cleaning action on the mouth & teeth.
3- It protects mouth against acids & alkalies where
bicarbonates, phosphates and proteins have an important
buffering action.
4- It moistens and lubricates the food to be easily swallowed
5- It dissolves solid foodstuffs due to its high water content and
thus subserves the sense of taste.
6- Certain substances such as mercury, lead and iodine salts are
.excreted through saliva
Digestion in the stomach -2
The bolus is swallowed to oesophagus then to stomach. The
stomach is consisted of fundus, body, antrum and pylorus.
The fundus and body are specialized for storage while the
.antrum is specialized for mixing food with gastric juice

Also, the antrum is characterized by:


* Their gastric glands secrete little acid.
.(* Its wall has not endocrine cells that secrete gastrin (hormone
Gastric juice
It is secreted from gastric glands which cover almost the entire wall of the
stomach.
It is formed from water (97%-99%) , mucus, inorganic salts and digestive
enzymes (pepsinogen, rennin & lipase).
There are different cells that line the wall of gastric gland which are:
1- Parietal (oxyntic) cells which secrete HCl.
2- Chief (peptic) cells which secrete pepsinogen.
3- Mucous cells which secrete mucous. These cells found at the openings of
these glands.
The gastric juice is secreted in response to:
1- A nervous stimulation: which is stimulated by the taste, smell, sight of
food or thinking of food.
2- A hormonal stimulation: On contact of food with the pyloric mucosa, it
releases a hormone called gastrin which passes into the blood and when it
returns to the gastric wall it stimulates the gastric cells to produce their
secretions.
The mechanism of gastric HCl secretion:

1- In parietal cells CO2 (from plasma) + H2O carbonic anhydrase H2CO3


2- H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
3- HCO3- passes to the plasma in exchange of for Cl- which is coupled to H+
.into the lumen of stomach
Functions of HCl
1- It converts the inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin and provides a
suitable medium for its action.
2- It kills most of the bacteria taken in with food.
3- It produces curdling of milk in the stomach which helps to keep it exposed
for a longer period to the action of pepsin.
4- When HCl leaves the stomach to duodenum, it stimulates its mucosa to
release secretion and pancreozymin hormones which stimulate liver and
pancreas to secrete their secretions.
Pepsin: (pH 1.8 – 3.5)

Pepsinogen (inactive form) pepsin (active form)


HCl

Protein Pepsin Peptones + proteoses

Rennin (milk-curdling enzyme): (pH 5 – 6)

Casein (milk protein) (soluble)


rennin paracasein (soluble) ++ paracaseinate
Ca (insoluble)
* Paracaseinate is then effected by pepsin.
* It is found in the stomachs of young animals but is probably absent in
human (pH =5-6).
Gastric lipase: It is of little quantitative importance.
At the end of digestion in the stomach the food mass is
converted into a liquid called chyme. The chyme passes through
the pyloric sphincter to small intestine.
Digestion in the small intestine -3
It is the major phase of digestion.
It takes place under the action of 3 juices which arebile,
pancreatic juice andintestinal juice.
These secretions are regulated by both hormonal (great effect)
.and nervous mechanisms

When chyme enters the small intestine, HCl, proteoses &


peptones stimulates the intestinal mucosa to release 2
hormones which are secretin and cholecystokinin-
pancreozymin (CCK-PZ).
Secretin causes the liver, pancreas & small intestine to secrete
large quantities of fluid rich in bicarbonate.
CCK-PZ causes :
* Contraction of gallbladder to release bile.
* Release of enzyme-rich pancreatic and intestinal juices.
1- Bile

It is continually secreted by liver cells which passes through bile duct which drains
into the duodenum.
Between meals bile stored in gallbladder.
It is greenish alkaline fluid containing water, inorganic salts (mainly bicarbonate) &
organic salts (bile salts and bile pigments).
N.B. There is enzymes in the bile.
Bicarbonate aids in the neutralization of acid chyme which enters the duodenum.
Functions of bile salts:
1- Activate pancreatic lipase.
2- Increase the rate of fat digestion and absorption in two ways:
a- Break large fat globules up into fine droplets & prevent them from aggregating
into larger ones. This process is called emulsification.
B- Combine with fatty acids and monoglycerides to form small, water-soluble
aggregations known as micelles.
2- Pancreatic juice
It is alkaline watery fluid containing inorganic salts (mainly bicarbonate) & organic
salts (enzymes for digesting all 3 major types of food: carbohydrates, proteins &
lipids).
Bicarbonate aids in the neutralization of acid chyme.
A- Amylolytic enzymes: i.e. digestion of carbohydrates.
Pancreatic amylase Disaccharides
Starch, glycogen & most carbohydrates
B- Proteolytic enzymes: i.e. digestion of proteins.
It comprises trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen & procarboxypolypeptidase which are
inactive forms.
Enterokinase
Trypsinogen (secreted by intestinal mucosa)
Trypsin
Autocatalysis
Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin
Trypsin
Procarboxypolypeptidase Carboxyplypeptidase
Proteoses + Peptones Trypsin &
Polypeptides
Chymotrypsin

Carboxypolypeptides Carboxypolypeptidase Amino acids


C- Lipolytic enzymes: i.e. digestion of lipids.
Emulsified fat Pancreatic lipase Fatty acid + monoglycerides

3- Intestinal juice
It is secreted by the tubular glands of the intestine.
It is an alkaline fluid containing water, minerals & digestive enzymes which are
amylolytic & proteolytic.
A- Amylolytic enzymes: such as disaccharidases e.g. maltase, sucrase & lactase..
Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose

B- Proteolytic enzymes: such as aminopolypeptidase, dipeptidase & enterokinase..


Aminopolypeptides Aminopolypeptidase Amino acids
Dipeptides dipeptidase Amino acids
Trypsinogen Enterokinase Trypsin
‫الى‬
‫اللقــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫ـاء‬
‫أ‪ .‬د‪ .‬شــــــبل‬
‫شـــــــــعلن‬

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