CHAPTER 5

Heat is a form of energy associated

with the motion of atoms, molecules and other particles which comprise matter. It can be created by chemical reactions, nuclear reactions, electromagnetic dissipation, or mechanical dissipation.

Units of Heat
Joule (J)- The SI unit for energy named after James Prescott Joule, it is the work done if a 1 Newton force act on a body and causes a body to move by 1 meter. Erg Unit of energy defined as the work done, when a force of 1 dyne acts on a body and causes a body to move 1 centimeter.

Foot-pound (ft-lb)- Unit of energy defined as the work done, when a force of 1 pound acts on a body and causes a body to move by 1 foot. For most scientific work, the foot-pound equals 1.356 joule. Electron volt (eV)- A unit of energy equal to the work done on an electrons moving it through a potential difference of 1 volt.

Calorie (cal)- Is the quantity of heat that raises the temperature of 1 gram of pure water 1C. this unit is sometimes called the small or gram calorie to distinguish it from the large calorie or kilocalorie. Kilocalorie (kcal)- The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through 1C. It is used to measure large amount of heat. It is equal to 1000 cal, which is used in nutrition studies.

BTU (british thermal unit), Btu is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1F. Kilowatt-hour (kwh)- A commercial unit of electrical energy equivalent to a power consumption of 1000 watts for 1 hr. Dietary calorie (C)- the term dietary calorie, written as C used in nutrition is the amount of energy we could get from foods. One dietary calorie (C) is equal to one Kilocalorie.

SOURCES OF HEAT
Natural 1. SUN 2. The interior of the Earth Artificial 1. chemical action 2. mechanical energy 3. electrical energy 4. nuclear energy

Heat Capacity/ Specific heat capacity

The specific heat of a body is the quantity of heat necessary to rise its temperature by 1C. the unit for heat capacity is J/K or J/C. The specific heat capacity is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1. The unit of specific heat is J/kgK.

Specific heat capacities of common substances

Method of mixture
On cold days when we feel that the water from the faucet or from the well is too cold for our bath, we heat some water and then mix this with the cold water in the tub where some of the heat is transferred from the hot water to the cold water. The transfer of heat continue until both are at common temperature known as the equilibrium temperature.

This equilibrium temperature is somewhere between the initial temperature of the cold and the hot measuring the amount water The process ofwater. It depends on theof heat mixed. The transfer of physical change is involved in a chemical or heat is always from the as substance to knownhot calorimetry. the colder one. During this process heat energy is conserved; hence, the heat lost by a hotter Heat gained=Heat lost substance is equal to the heat gained by a mcT=mcT colder colder substance. This is the principle of the law of heat exchange.

Change of phase
A number of physical changes are A phase change or a of temperature associated with the changechange of state occurs whenever the physical state of a substance. Almost all substances of a substance changes. Melting, expand in volume when heated and freezing, evaporation, and condensation contract when cooled. The phase of a involve phase change. substance refers to its occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes in pure substances occur at a definite temperature and pressure

Sublimation- The process of changing from solid to gas without passing the liquid state. Fusion- is the change of a substance from the solid to the liquid state, usually by the application of heat. The process is the same as melting, but the term fusion is usually applied to substances such as metals that become liquid at high temperature, and to crystalline solids.

Vaporization, is the change of water or other liquids from a liquid to a gaseous state at a temperature below its boiling point. A liquid is made up of atoms or molecules that are in constant motion, traveling at different speeds. The average speed of these particles depends only on the liquids temperature. If the particles have enough energy speed, and therefore enough kinetic energy to cause the surface particle to leave the liquid and become gas atoms or molecules.

Boiling- is the vaporization of a liquid in bubbles in the body of the liquid as well as the free surface. It is accompanied by agitation of the liquid as the bubbles rise, expand, and burst. Condensation- is a process of reduction of matter into a denser form, as in the liquefaction of vapor steam. Condensation is the reduction of temperature by the removal of latent heat of evaporation, the product being known is condensate.

Solification or freezing- is the process of changing liquid to solid. Deposition- is the process of changing gas to solid. Melting point- is the temperature at which any given substance changes from solid to liquid. Boiling point- is the temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to gas. A temperature at which vapor pressure I equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid.

Heat of fusion- is the amount of heat needed to change a unit mass of a substance from the solid to the liquid state without any change in temperature. It is often called the latent heat of fusion. Heat of solidification- is the amount of heat that must be removed from a unit mass of a substance from liquid to the a solid state without any change in temperature. The heat of solidification is equal to the heat of fusion.

Heat of vaporization (latent heat of vaporization)- is the amount of heat needed to change a unit mass of a substance from liquid state to vapor state without any change in temperature. Heat condensation (latent heat of condensation)- is the amount of heat that must be removed from a unit mass of a substance at boiling point to change to change it from vapor state to liquid state without any change in temperature. Equal to heat of vaporization.

Triple point & Critical point

INTRODUCTION
Changes of state are affected by pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the boiling point. This is the principle that underlies the pressure cooker. By heating the water in a sealed container, the pressure can be raised well above 1 atm, and the temperature at which the water boils will be correspondingly higher than 100C.In this way food can be cooked more rapidly than in an open pan.

The triple point

Is the point that the three phases can exist together in equilibrium or it is the pressure and temperature wherein the solid, liquid, and vapor state of matter can occur simultaneously.

The Critical Point

Is the temperature and pressure at which a substance changes in its physical state. The critical point of a metal alloy is the temperature during the cooling of the substance at which the molecular rearrangement takes place, giving rise to a different form of the substance, usually the absorption or evolution of heat.

 The temperature above which it is no longer possible to distinguish liquid and vapor is called critical temperature. Above this temperature, a gas cannot be liquefied no matter how much pressure is applied. The pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature is called the critical pressure. Some gases, such as helium, hydrogen, and nitrogen, have low critical temperatures and require intensive cooling before they can be liquefied.

Phase diagrams, show whether a substance exists as a vapor, liquid, or solid at a given temperature and pressure. The point where the three lines intersect in a phase diagram shows the pressure and temperature where the solid, liquid, and vapor all exist in equilibrium. This point, which occurs for water at 0.01C(32.02F), is known as the triple point.

Heat transfer
Heat transfer is the process by which energy in the form of heat is exchanged between bodies or parts of the same body at different temperatures. The discipline of heat is concerned with only two things: temperature, and the flow of heat. Heat is generally transferred by convection, radiation, or conduction.

Conduction- is a method of heat transfer in a material medium from point to point or Conduction is the molecule to molecule. Conduction occurs transfer of heatat different temperatures when to object are in contact along a solid with each other. Heat flows from the warmer object; it is this to the cooler object until they are both at the same temperature. process that conduction is the movement of makes the handle heat through a substance by the collision of amolecules. At the place where the two of poker hot, objects touch, the faster molecules of the even if only the tip iswarmer fireplace. collide with the slower in the substance moving molecules of the cooler object.

Temperature gradient- is the average drop L in temperature per unit length of the Q= material. ___ktTA__ L Q T2-T1 T2 Where: Temp.T1 gradient = ---------- temp. Low Highof cross-section temp. A, area L t, time when heat is allowed to flow The conductor of heat from the hotter K, thermal conductivity of a material portion to the cooler portion is proportional Q,the cross-sectional in calories bar, and heat conducted area of the to L, thickness the time the heat is allowed to flow.

T, change in temperature

Convection is the transfer of heat by moving matter. In liquids and gasses, convection is usually the most efficient way to transfer heat. convection occurs when warmer areas of a liquid or gas rise to cooler areas in the liquid or gas. The motion of the fluid may be natural or forced. If a liquid or gas is heated, its mass per unit volume generally decreases as this happens, cooler liquid or gas takes the place of the warmer areas which have risen higher.

Radiation is very much faster process than conduction and convection. Heat by radiation travels with the speed of light. It is believe that or radiant energy is transferred by means of electro-magnetic waves. These waves are believed to be disturbances in the electric and the magnetic field intensities which change in direction and magnitude as the wave progresses. The amount of radiated energy is measured by the change in temperature of the body that absorbs it.