Lecture Oct-27-11 Chapter 18

Ch-18 The Endocrine System
Oct-27-2011
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 18
The Endocrine System
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Oct-27-2011
Homeostasis and Intercellular Communication
Direct Communication

Exchange of ions and molecules between adjacent cells across gap junctions Occurs between two cells of same type Highly specialized and relatively rare
Paracrine Communication

Uses chemical signals to transfer information from cell to cell within single tissue Most common form of intercellular communication
Endocrine Communication

Endocrine cells release chemicals (hormones) into bloodstream Alters metabolic activities of many tissues and organs simultaneously
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The Endocrine System
Regulates long-term processes Growth Development Reproduction Uses chemical messengers to relay information and instructions between cells Are specific cells that possess receptors needed to bind and read hormonal messages Stimulate synthesis of enzymes or structural proteins Increase or decrease rate of synthesis Turn existing enzyme or membrane channel on or off
Target Cells
Hormones

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Introduction to the Endocrine System
Figure 181 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System.

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Introduction to the Endocrine System
Figure 181 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System.

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Hormones
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Figure 182 A Structural Classification of Hormones

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Secretion and Distribution of Hormones
Circulate freely or bound to transport proteins 1) Free Hormones
Remain functional for less than 1 hour Diffuse out of bloodstream: bind to receptors on target cells Are broken down and absorbed: by cells of liver or kidney Are broken down by enzymes: in plasma or interstitial fluids
2) Transport Proteins bound hormones

Thyroid and Steroid Hormones
Remain in circulation much longer Enter bloodstream More than 99% become attached to special transport proteins Bloodstream contains substantial reserve of bound hormones
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Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Hormone Receptor

Is a protein molecule to which a particular molecule binds strongly Responds to several different hormones Different tissues have different combinations of receptors Presence or absence of specific receptor determines hormonal sensitivity
Hormones and Plasma Membrane Receptors
Catecholamines and peptide hormones Are not lipid soluble Unable to penetrate plasma membrane Bind to receptor proteins at outer surface of plasma membrane (extracellular receptors)
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Bind to receptors in plasma membrane Cannot have direct effect on activities inside target cell Use intracellular intermediary to exert effects First messenger: leads to second messenger may act as enzyme activator, inhibitor, or cofactor results in change in rates of metabolic reactions
Important Second Messengers Cyclic-AMP (cAMP) : Derivative of ATP Cyclic-GMP (cGMP) : Derivative of GTP Calcium ions :
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The Process of Amplification Is the binding of a small number of hormone molecules to membrane receptors Leads to thousands of second messengers in cell Magnifies effect of hormone on target cell
Down-regulation

Presence of a hormone triggers decrease in number of hormone receptors When levels of particular hormone are high, cells become less sensitive Absence of a hormone triggers increase in number of hormone receptors When levels of particular hormone are low, cells become more sensitive
Up-regulation

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1) G Protein
Enzyme complex coupled to membrane receptor Involved in link between first messenger and second messenger Binds GTP Activated when hormone binds to receptor at membrane surface and changes concentration of second messenger cyclic-AMP (cAMP) within cell: increased cAMP level accelerates metabolic activity within cell
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Figure 183 G Proteins and Hormone Activity
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2) G Proteins and Calcium Ions
Activated G proteins trigger opening of calcium ion channels in membrane release of calcium ions from intracellular stores G protein activates enzyme phospholipase C (PLC) Enzyme triggers receptor cascade: production of diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) from membrane phospholipids
Figure 183 G Proteins and Hormone Activity

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Hormones and Intracellular Receptors
Alter rate of DNA transcription in nucleus Change patterns of protein synthesis Directly affect metabolic activity and structure of target cell Includes steroids and thyroid hormones
Figure 184a Effects of Intracellular Hormone Binding

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Hormones and Intracellular Receptors
Alter rate of DNA transcription in nucleus Change patterns of protein synthesis Directly affect metabolic activity and structure of target cell Includes steroids and thyroid hormones
Figure 184b Effects of Intracellular Hormone Binding

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Endocrine Reflexes
Endocrine Reflexes
Functional counterparts of neural reflexes In most cases, controlled by negative feedback mechanisms Stimulus triggers production of hormone whose effects reduce intensity of the stimulus
Endocrine reflexes can be triggered by 1) Humoral stimuli Changes in composition of extracellular fluid 2) Hormonal stimuli Arrival or removal of specific hormone 3) Neural stimuli Arrival of neurotransmitters at neuroglandular junctions
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Endocrine Reflexes
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Simple Endocrine Reflex

Involves only one hormone Controls hormone secretion by the heart, pancreas, parathyroid gland, and digestive tract Involves One or more intermediary steps Two or more hormones The hypothalamus Pathways include both neural and endocrine components
Complex Endocrine Reflex
Neuroendocrine Reflexes
Complex Commands
Issued by changing Amount of hormone secreted Pattern of hormone release: hypothalamic and pituitary hormones released in sudden bursts frequency changes response of target cells
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Endocrine Reflexes
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Figure 185 Three Mechanisms of Hypothalamic Control
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Pituitary Gland
Also called hypophysis
Lies within sella turcica Diaphragma sellae A dural sheet that locks pituitary in position Isolates it from cranial cavity
Hangs inferior to hypothalamus Connected by infundibulum
Figure 186a The Anatomy and Orientation of the Pituitary Gland.

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Pituitary Gland
Median Eminence

Swelling near attachment of infundibulum Where hypothalamic neurons release regulatory factors Into interstitial fluids Through fenestrated capillaries
Releases nine important peptide hormones
Hormones bind to membrane receptors Use cAMP as second messenger
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Pituitary Gland
Portal Vessels

Blood vessels link two capillary networks Entire complex is portal system Ensures that regulatory factors reach intended target cells before entering general circulation
Figure 187 The Hypophyseal Portal System and the Blood Supply to the Pituitary Gland.
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Pituitary Gland
Anterior lobe (also called adenohypophysis)
Hormones turn on endocrine glands or support other organs Can be subdivided into three regions:
1. 2. 3.
Pars distalis Pars intermedia Pars tuberalis
Posterior lobe (also called neurohypophysis)

Contains unmyelinated axons of hypothalamic neurons Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei manufacture
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Oxytocin (OXT)
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Pituitary Gland
Two Classes of Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormones
Releasing hormones (RH) Stimulate synthesis and secretion of one or more hormones at anterior lobe Inhibiting hormones (IH) Prevent synthesis and secretion of hormones from the anterior lobe Rate of secretion is controlled by negative feedback
Figure 188a Feedback Control of Endocrine Secretion

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Pituitary Gland
Figure 188b Feedback Control of Endocrine Secretion.

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Pituitary Gland
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Figure 189 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets.
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Pituitary Gland
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Pituitary Gland
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The Thyroid Gland

Lies anterior to thyroid cartilage of larynx Consists of two lobes connected by narrow isthmus
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Figure 1810a The Thyroid Gland.
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The Thyroid Gland
Thyroid follicles Hollow spheres lined by cuboidal epithelium Cells surround follicle cavity that contains viscous colloid Surrounded by network of capillaries that deliver nutrients and regulatory hormones accept secretory products and metabolic wastes
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Figure 1810b-c The Thyroid Gland.
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The Thyroid Gland
Thyroglobulin (Globular Protein)
Synthesized by follicle cells Secreted into colloid of thyroid follicles Molecules contain the amino acid tyrosine Also called tetraiodothyronine Contains four iodide ions Contains three iodide ions
Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
C (Clear) Cells of the Thyroid Gland
Produce calcitonin (CT) 2+ Helps regulate concentrations of Ca in body fluids
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The Thyroid Follicles
Figure 1811a Synthesis, Storage, and Secretion of Hormones

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Figure 1811b The Regulation of Thyroid Secretion.
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The Thyroid Gland
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Absence causes thyroid follicles to become inactive Neither synthesis nor secretion occurs Binds to membrane receptors Activates key enzymes in thyroid hormone production
Thyroid Hormones
Enter target cells by transport system Affect most cells in body Bind to receptors in Cytoplasm Surfaces of mitochondria Nucleus In children, essential to normal development of Skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems
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The Thyroid Gland
Calorigenic Effect

Cell consumes more energy resulting in increased heat generation Is responsible for strong, immediate, and short-lived increase in rate of cellular metabolism
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Parathyroid Glands
Embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Produced by chief cells 2+ In response to low concentrations of Ca
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Figure 1812 The Parathyroid Glands.
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Parathyroid Glands
Four Effects of PTH

1)
It stimulates osteoclasts
Accelerates mineral turnover and releases Ca2+ from bone
2)
It inhibits osteoblasts
Reduces rate of calcium deposition in bone
3)
4)

It enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ at kidneys, reducing urinary loss It stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol at kidneys
Effects complement or enhance PTH Enhances Ca2+, PO43- absorption by digestive tract
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6-8
THE SKELETON AS A CALCIUM RESERVE
I. HORMONES & CALCIUM
BALANCE
C. i.
VITAMIN D
FUNCTIONS:
i.
Calcium Resorption In The Intestines ii. Increases Osteoclasts iii. Maintains Proper Function Of PTH
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6-8
Calcium Homeostasis
The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve
Bones store calcium and other minerals Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body
Calcium ions are vital to:

membranes neurons muscle cells, especially heart cells
Homeostasis is maintained By calcitonin and parathyroid hormone Which control storage, absorption, and excretion

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6-8 Calcium Homeostasis

Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone control and affect
Bones : Where calcium is stored
Digestive tract : Where calcium is absorbed

Kidneys : Where calcium is excreted
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Produced by parathyroid glands in
Calcitonin
Secreted by C cells (parafollicular cells) in thyroid Decreases calcium ion levels by
Inhibiting osteoclast activity Increasing calcium excretion at kidneys
neck Increases calcium ion levels by

Stimulating osteoclasts Increasing intestinal absorption of calcium Decreasing calcium excretion at kidneys
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6-8
I.
HORMONES & CALCIUM BALANCE A. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) B. Calcitonin
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6-8
A. B.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Calcitonin
I. HORMONES & CALCIUM BALANCE
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Parathyroid Glands
Figure 1813 The Homeostatic Regulation of Calcium Ion Concentrations.

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Parathyroid Glands
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Suprarenal (Adrenal) Glands
Lie along superior border of each kidney Subdivided into
Superficial suprarenal cortex
Stores lipids, especially cholesterol and fatty acids
Manufactures steroid hormones: adrenocortical steroids (corticosteroids)

Secretory activities controlled by sympathetic division of ANS Produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine Metabolic changes persist for several minutes
Inner suprarenal medulla
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Suprarenal Glands
Figure 1814a The Suprarenal Gland.

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Suprarenal Glands
Suprarenal Cortex
Subdivided into three regions:

1.
2.
3.
Zona glomerulosa Zona fasciculata Zona reticularis
1)

Zona Glomerulosa
Outer region of suprarenal cortex Produces mineralocorticoids For example, aldosterone: stimulates conservation of sodium ions and elimination of potassium ions increases sensitivity of salt receptors in taste buds Secretion responds to: + drop in blood Na , blood volume, or blood pressure + rise in blood K concentration
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Suprarenal Glands
2) Zona Fasciculata

Produces glucocorticoids For example, cortisol (hydrocortisone) with corticosterone Liver converts cortisol to cortisone Secretion regulated by negative feedback Has inhibitory effect on production of Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in hypothalamus ACTH in adenohypophysis Accelerates glucose synthesis and glycogen formation Shows anti-inflammatory effects Inhibits activities of white blood cells and other components of immune system
3)

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Zona Reticularis
Network of endocrine cells Forms narrow band bordering each suprarenal medulla Produces androgens under stimulation by ACTH
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Suprarenal Glands
Suprarenal Medulla
Contains two types of secretory cells
One produces epinephrine (adrenaline) 75 to 80% of medullary secretions The other produces norepinephrine (noradrenaline) 20 to 25% of medullary secretions
Figure 1814b-c The Suprarenal Gland.
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Suprarenal Glands
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Pineal Gland
Lies in posterior portion of roof of third ventricle
Contains pinealocytes Synthesize hormone melatonin Functions of Melatonin Inhibiting reproductive functions Protecting against damage by free radicals Setting circadian rhythms
Figure 145 The Diencephalon and Brain Stem.
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Pancreas
Lies between Inferior border of stomach And proximal portion of small intestine
Contains exocrine and endocrine cells
Figure 1815 The Endocrine Pancreas

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Pancreas
Endocrine Pancreas
Consists of cells that form clusters known as pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans 1) Alpha cells produce glucagon 2) Beta cells produce insulin 3) Delta cells produce peptide hormone identical to GHIH 4) F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
Figure 1815 The Endocrine Pancreas
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Pancreas
Blood Glucose Levels 1) When levels rise Beta cells secrete insulin, stimulating transport of glucose across plasma membranes 2) When levels decline Alpha cells release glucagon, stimulating glucose release by liver
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Figure 1816 The Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentrations
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Pancreas
Insulin

Is a peptide hormone released by beta cells Affects target cells
Accelerates glucose uptake Accelerates glucose utilization and enhances ATP production Stimulates glycogen formation Stimulates amino acid absorption and protein synthesis Stimulates triglyceride formation in adipose tissue
Glucagon

Released by alpha cells Mobilizes energy reserves Affects target cells

Stimulates breakdown of glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells Stimulates breakdown of triglycerides in adipose tissue Stimulates production of glucose in liver
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Pancreas
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Endocrine Tissues of Other Systems
Many organs of other body systems have secondary endocrine functions

1)
2)
3) 4) 5) 6)
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Intestines (digestive system) Produce hormones important to coordination of digestive activities Kidneys (urinary system) : Produce the hormones calcitriol and erythropoietin Produce the enzyme renin Heart (cardiovascular system) Thymus (lymphoid system and immunity) Adipose Tissue Secretions Gonads (reproductive system)
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Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys
Figure 1817a : The Production of Calcitriol

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Figure 1817b : Overview of the Renin-angiotensin System
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3) Heart Produces natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP) When blood volume becomes excessive Action opposes angiotensin II Resulting in reduction in blood volume and blood pressure 4) Thymus Produces thymosins (blend of thymic hormones) That help develop and maintain normal immune defenses 5) Adipose Tissue Secretions Leptin Feedback control for appetite Controls normal levels of GnRH, gonadotropin synthesis Resistin Reduces insulin sensitivity
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6A) Testes (Gonads) Produce androgens in interstitial cells Testosterone is the most important male hormone Secrete inhibin in nurse (sustentacular) cells Support differentiation and physical maturation of sperm 6B) Ovaries (Gonads) Produce estrogens Principle estrogen is estradiol After ovulation, follicle cells Reorganize into corpus luteum Release estrogens and progestins, especially progesterone
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Hormone Interactions

Antagonistic (opposing) effects Synergistic (additive) effects
Permissive effects: one hormone is necessary for another to produce effect

Integrative effects: hormones produce different and complementary results
Hormones Important to Growth GH Thyroid hormones Insulin PTH Calcitriol Reproductive hormones
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Growth Hormone (GH) In children Supports muscular and skeletal development In adults Maintains normal blood glucose concentrations Mobilizes lipid reserves Thyroid Hormones If absent during fetal development or for first year Nervous system fails to develop normally Mental retardation results If T4 concentrations decline before puberty Normal skeletal development will not continue
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Insulin Allows passage of glucose and amino acids across plasma membranes Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) and Calcitriol Promote absorption of calcium salts for deposition in bone Inadequate levels causes weak and flexible bones Reproductive Hormones Androgens in males, estrogens in females Stimulate cell growth and differentiation in target tissues Produce gender-related differences in Skeletal proportions Secondary sex characteristics
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Diabetes Insipidus
Inadequate release of ADH from neurohypophysis

Water conservation at kidneys is impaired and excessive amounts of water is lost in the urine
(Polyuria)
In severe cases, fluid loss can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance and prove fatal. The condition can be treated by administration of
desmopressin, a synthetic form of ADH
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Diabetes Mellitus
Characterized by glucose levels that are high enough to impair resorption capabilities of kidneys
Glucose is secreted in urine (glycosuria) and associated with excessive urine production (polyuria)
DM can be caused due to genetic abnormalities 1) Inadequate synthesis of Insulin 2) Production of abnormal insulin 3) Production of defective receptor proteins 4) May also result from injuries, pathological conditions, immune disorders or hormonal imbalance Obesity accelerates the onset of DM
Two types: Type 1: individual do no produce insulin and require insulin injections to survive Type 2: individuals produce insulin, but their body is not able to utilize the same
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Diabetes Mellitus
Due to inadequate glucose levels stabilization, DM leads to a spectrum of chronic medical problems Tissue face chronic energy crisis and lead to break down of lipids and even proteins. Conditions is made worse with co-existing hypertension and high cholesterol Targeting any of these three can alleviate the related health issues 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Diabetic retinopathy Increased incidence of cataracts Diabetic nephropathy Diabetic neuropathy Degenerative blockage of cardiac circulation Blood flow to distal limbs is disrupted. e.g. feet may develop tissue death, ulceration, infection or loss of toes.
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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Also called stress response How body responds to stress-causing factors
Is divided into three phases:
1. Alarm phase 2. Resistance phase 3. Exhaustion phase
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Figure 1818 The General Adaptation Syndrome.
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Figure 1818 The General Adaptation Syndrome.

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Hormone Changes

Can alter intellectual capabilities, memory, learning, and emotional states Affect behavior when endocrine glands are oversecreting or under-secreting
Aging
Causes few functional changes Decline in concentration of

Growth hormone Reproductive hormones
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Lecture Oct-27-11 Chapter 18

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Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 18

The Endocrine System

Bio 2870 A & P

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Homeostasis and Intercellular Communication

Bio 2870 A & P

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Homeostasis and Intercellular Communication

Bio 2870 A & P

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Homeostasis and Intercellular Communication

Bio 2870 A & P

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Homeostasis and Intercellular Communication

The Endocrine System

Bio 2870 A & P

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Introduction to the Endocrine System

Figure 181 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System.

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Introduction to the Endocrine System

Figure 181 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System.

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Figure 182 A Structural Classification of Hormones

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Secretion and Distribution of Hormones

Circulate freely or bound to transport proteins 1) Free Hormones

2) Transport Proteins bound hormones

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Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Hormones and Plasma Membrane Receptors

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Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Hormones and Plasma Membrane Receptors

Bio 2870 A & P

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Bio 2870 A & P

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Hormones and Plasma Membrane Receptors

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Figure 183 G Proteins and Hormone Activity

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Figure 183 G Proteins and Hormone Activity

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Hormones and Intracellular Receptors

Figure 184a Effects of Intracellular Hormone Binding

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Figure 184b Effects of Intracellular Hormone Binding

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Bio 2870 A & P

Ch-18 The Endocrine System

Simple Endocrine Reflex

Complex Endocrine Reflex

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Ch-18 The Endocrine System